附錄十七、林肯
1. 歷史懸案;楊杰主編;華文出版社;2009。
林肯被刺的背后隱秘
亞伯拉罕 ‧ 林肯是19世紀中期美國北方資產階級民主派的代表人物,也是美國歷史上的第十六任總統。他在任職期間提出了廢奴主張,并領導美國人民取得了南北戰爭的偉大胜利。
1860年11月林肯成功當選為美國第十六任總統。南方諸州不滿這一結果,在其上台后的3個月中,先后有11個州退出聯邦,組成新美國政府,推舉出總統和副總統,并制了新憲法。奴隸主分裂了聯邦,開如公開判亂。
美國國內形勢十分危急,內戰一触即發,北方政權岌岌可危,宣誓就職后的林肯面臨著嚴峻的考驗。1863年4月12日,薩姆特要塞一聲炮響,南北戰爭拉開帷幕。
戰爭進行了一年,但戰場上的情形卻几乎沒有進展,黑奴問題也沒者解決,原因是林肯政府一直認為,戰爭只是為了維護憲法和聯邦的統一。當時的林肯綜后各方面的意見,做事非常謹慎,認為立刻廢除黑奴制不妥。人民与資產階級左派對他的做法感到不滿,並不支持他。
1864年元旦,林肯簽署了“聯判成立以來美國歷史上最重要的父件” ––– 《解放奴隸宣言》。此舉贏得了全國人民与資產階級左派的支持,并因此扭轉了戰爭局勢。
1965年4月美國內戰終以北方的胜利而告終。
2. 歷史大追問~世界篇;編著姚博;著品文化事業有限公司;2006。
林肯為甚麼要發表《解放黑奴宣言》?
一八六二年九月,美國總統林肯發表《解敵黑奴宣言》,宣布南方叛亂各省的黑奴為自由人;隨后又提出「民有、民治、民享」的綱領性口號,激發了廣大黑人參戰的積极性,加速了北方戰勝南方的戰爭進程。
有人說,是當時國內和國際形勢迫使林肯確定了解放奴隸的重大決策。他本人的動机是很不單純的:(1)摧毀南方的經濟力量;(2)把南方黑人拉到自己方面來;(3)博得全世界進步力量的同情和支持;(4)破坏歐洲列強武裝干涉的企圖。
有人則說,林肯發表《宣言》的動力,不是來自外界,而在於他一貫的廢奴立場和主張。何時採取解放政策,只是一种策略上的變他,而在戰略上解放奴隸的目的始終沒有變。他發表《宣言》絕非偶然,絕不是屈服外界壓力的結果,而是他謹慎、全面權衡國內外局勢,所做出的具有決定意義的步驟。應該承認,在對待黑奴的態度上,他多少受到歧視里人的傳統默響,而內戰的現實深刻教育了他,促使他由同情黑人,發展到解放和武裝黑人。
還有人說,林肯在發表《宣言》上表現得很猶預,主要是因為他沒存「一貫廢奴的主片長和立場」。他是經過後長時間的猶豫,直到事情「越來越糟」、「全局就將輸光」之時,這才決定採取解放黑奴政策的。
有人還認為,雖然《宣言》是在和廢奴主義者的激裂鬥爭中形成和發展的,是在後者的強大壓力下一步步完成的,但這並不等於說林肯頒布《宣言》,僅僅是被動的受容觀環境的逼迫所致。作為一個大國政治家,在錯綜複集的政治鬥爭和危机四伏的環境中,他的一言一行可能產生舉足輕重的結果,所次,他的的謹慎度是可以理解的。
3. 世界歷史懸案;作者:探索發現系列編委會;西北國際文化有限公司;2009。
真兇是誰 ––– 林肯遇刺真相
西元1834年,林肯擔任美國伊利諾州議員,這一時期,美國正處於激烈的變革之中,北方的資本主義工商業和南方的奴隸制產生無法調解的矛質,並日益擴大。林肯站在北方資產階級的立場上,積极地投入反對南方奴隸主的鬥爭中。西元1847年,林肯當選國會眾議員,酉元1854年參加共和黨,很快便成黨內的意見頌袖,西元1856年,共和黨提名林肯為副總統候選人,他堅決反對奴隸制的態度給人們留下深刻的印象。西元1860年11月6日,林肯以他崇高的聲望和高尚的品德一舉獲勝,成為美國第十六任總統,也是共和黨第一位總統。林肯上任后,實施一系列革命措施,分配土地給農民,宣布著名的《解放黑人奴隸宣言》,廢祭叛亂各州的奴隸制,這些舉動嬴得了百姓的支持,黑奴踴躍報名參軍,近400萬黑奴的解放使得北部聯邦軍隊獲得到雄厚的資源。解放宣言自西云1863年1月1日開始主效,它使得內戰的情勢急轉直下,北部軍隊由原來的防禦轉入攻擊,不久便取得葛庇斯堡大捷,緊接著,南部軍的將領投降,歷時4年之久的南北戰爭最後以北方的及至利而告終。由於內戰的胜利,林肯的聲望愈來愈高,西元1864年,他再度當選美國總統。
4. 影響世界的100件大事;除鐘華、童小珍著;華文出版社;2009。
美國南北戰爭
18世紀獨立戰爭后,美國建立了聯邦制,由資產階絞与種植園奴隸主聯合執政。不過南北兩地依舊各行其道:美國南方在种植園經濟的基礎上發展著黑奴制,而北方則發展了資本主義的自由雇佣制。
到19世紀中葉,這兩种對立的經濟制度之間的矛盾發展到了不可調和的地步。南部奴隸制度成為美國社會經濟發展的主要障礙。1860年,以呼吁維護聯邦統一、反對奴隸擴張而著稱的林肯當選美國第16屆總統。南方奴隸主感到大權旁落,于是開始制造分裂,蓄意發動叛亂。1861年初,南方各州脫离聯邦,成立“南部各州同盟”,定都里士滿。4月12日,南方叛軍炮擊聯邦軍駐守的薩姆特要塞,公然挑起國內戰爭。4月15日,林肯被迫宣布南方為叛州,征召7.5萬名志願軍,為恢复聯邦統一而戰。
戰爭開始后,無論在人口、工業生產、財政金融、交通運輸、軍事力量,還是政治上,北方均占有絕對优勢。然而戰爭初期,聯邦軍隊卻頻頻失利。這是因為南方軍隊有備而來,敢得了主動權,更是因為林肯政府將最敏感的奴隸制存廢問題擱置一邊。1861年7月,在离華盛頓40千米的馬薩撕城發生第一次會戰,聯邦軍被人數較少的南方軍擊敗,華盛頓几乎失守。此后,群眾舉行了示威游行,要求解放奴隸,分給農民土地,挽救危局。
1862年9月23日,林肯發表預備性的《解放宣言》。宣布:假如在1863年1月1日以前南方叛亂者不放下武器,叛亂諸州的奴隸將從那一矢起獲得自由。消息傳到南方後。成千上萬的奴隸逃往北方。英國工人階級也展開了支持北方的運動,迫使英國政府放棄了原來的干涉計划。林肯政府還實行一系列革命措施和政策:1862年~1863年,實行武裝黑人的政策,成千上萬黑人報名參加北方軍隊,其中主要是南方逃亡奴隸;1862年5月頒布的“宅地法”規定:一切患于聯邦的成年人,只要交付10美元的登記費,就可以在西部領取160英畝土地,在土地上耕种5年后就可以成為這塊土地的所有者。林肯政府嚴厲鎮壓反革命分子,清洗軍隊中的南方代理人。1893年開始實行征兵法,以代替募兵制,從而增強了北方的兵力。同時林肯調整了軍事領導机构,實行統一指揮,任命有卓越軍事才能的格蘭特為全軍統帥。
1863年,北方在軍事上出現轉机。同年7月1日的葛底廝堡大捷,成為內部的轉折點。戰爭的主動權轉到北方軍隊手中。1864年,北方最高統帥格蘭特采用新的戰略方針:在東、西兩線同時展開強人攻勢。東線以消耗敵人力量為主要目標:兩線用強大兵力深入敵方腹地,切斷“南部同盟”的東北部与西南部的聯系。
1864年9月,西線謝爾曼將軍麾下的北軍一舉攻下亞特蘭大。兩個月后,北軍開始了著名的“向海洋進軍”,徹底摧毀了敵人的名种軍事設施,沉重地打擊了敵人的經濟力量,使南方經濟陷于癱瘓狀態。在東線,格蘭特將軍統率北渾把敵軍逼到叛亂“首都”里士滿附近。1864年11月,林肯以絕對多數再度當選總統,南方敗局已定。1865年初,奴隸紛紛逃亡,種值園經濟瀕于瓦解。北方海軍實行海上封鎖,几乎斷絕南方与歐洲的貿易。同時,在南方內部也出現反對派,許多小農加入“聯邦派”,從事反戰活動。南方逃兵与月俱增,糧食及日用品匱乏。1865年4月3日,聯邦軍隊攻克里士滿。1865年4月9日,南軍羅伯特‧李將軍的部隊陷入北方軍隊的重圍之中,被迫向格蘭特投降。
美國南北戰爭以北方的勝利高告結束,美國恢复統一。
5. 不列顛百科全書國際中文版修訂版10;中國大百科全書出版社;2007。
林肯(1809-02-12,美國肯塔基霍金維爾~1865-04-15,華盛頓[哥倫比亞特區]
早期政治生活 林肯初入政界時,杰克遜任總統。林肯支持杰克遜派為平民百姓服務的口號,但是不同意該派揚言政府必須与經濟事業脫鉤的觀點。后來他講:“政府的合法目標就是要人們群体去做他們需要做,但是以分散的個人力量根本做不成,或者自己不能做得十分好的那些事情。”在當時卓越政治家中,他最推崇H.克萊和D.韋伯期特。克萊和韋伯斯特主張運用聯邦政府的權力去鼓勵工商企業,并創旁辦國家銀行,實行保護關稅和制定改進國內運輸的計划,以此為開發國家資源的手段。林肯認為伊利諾伊州和整個西部的經添發展迫切需要這种援助。他從一開始就參加了克萊和韋伯斯特的輝格党。
1834~1940年間,他四次被選入伊利諾伊州議會。作為州議會的輝格党議員,他竭立鼓吹用該州資金建設鐵路、公路和運河的网狀系統的宏偉計划。輝格党人和民主党人聯合起來,通過一項舉辦這事業的綜合議案。但是,由于1837年的經濟恐慌和隨之而來的生意蕭條,放棄了其中的大部分項目。在州議會中,他表明自己交對奴隸制,但不是廢奴主義者。1837年州議會針對暴民殺害奧爾頓的反對奴隸制度的報人E.洛夫喬伊事件提出几項決議。這些決議不是譴責私刑,而是非難廢奴主義者團体,並借助聯邦憲法支持南方各州內的奴隸制,說它是“神圣不可侵犯的”。林肯在通過決議是拒絕投票。他與另一位議員共同起草了一分反對決議的抗議書。這份抗議書一方面聲言奴隸制是“以非正義和政策為基礎的”,一方面又斷定“散布廢奴學說容易增加而不是減少這一制度的禍害”。
在他唯一的一屆國會任期(1847~1849)中,作為伊利諾伊州選出的唯一的輝格党員,林肯對于立法問題本身很不關心。他曾提出一項逐步地和有補償地解放哥倫比亞特區奴隸的議案,但是,只有得到該特區的“自由白種公民”批准,這一議案才能生效。它既得罪了奴隸主,也使廢奴主義者不滿,始終沒有得到認真的考慮。
林肯把大部份時間投入總統選舉的政治活動,努力罷免一個民主党人總統,而使一個輝格党人當選。他在墨西哥戰爭中找到一個爭論點和一位候選人。在波爾克總統發表聲明說墨西哥發動戰爭使美國人在美國的土地上流血的時候,林肯“當机立斷”,表示堅決反對。在表決繼續戰爭撥款時,他与同党的議員一道投票譴責波爾克和這次戰爭。同時,他為戰爭英雄Z.泰勒的提名和競選奔走。泰勒當選后,他希望作為竟選活動的酬勞出任聯邦土地總署專員,當他未能得到這個職位時,非常灰心喪气。另外,在他自已的國會議員選區里,選民們不贊成他時墨西哥戰爭的批評。40歲時,在政壇上失意的林肯似乎已無混跡官場的前途。
息影政壇約5年之后,一場新的地區性危机使他得以東山再起,一躍而為活國之才。1854年他的政冶對手S.A. 道格拉斯使用權術,在國會中通過一項議案,重新開放整個路易斯安那購地的奴隸制,并准許堪薩斯和內布拉斯加的居尾(根据“人民主權論”)自已決定在他們的地區內是否可以蓄奴。《堪薩斯 – 內布拉斯加法案》在伊利諾伊州和原西北部其他各州引起強烈的反對。這使得共和党抬頭,而加速輝格党的解体。林肯與成千上万其他的失魂落魄的輝格党人一道,很快加入了共和党(1856)。不久以后,東部地區有几個共和党著名人物說論吸收道格拉斯以及他在西部地區的一批民主党追隨者到共和党一邊來。林肯根本不贊成這种想法。他堅決認為他而不道格拉斯應之該充當伊利諾伊州和西部地區共和党的領袖。在基本觀點上,他和道格拉斯并不像在兩人的激烈政治辯論中那樣相距很遠。兩人都不是廢奴主義者,也都不是贊成奴隸制度的人。但是林肯有一點与道格拉斯不同,他堅決認為國會應該禁止准州實行奴隸制。道格拉斯認力各准州天然就不适于奴隸經濟,用不著國會立法去阻止奴隸制度的傳入,而林肯則不同意這种看法。他于1858年宣告說:“分崩的大廈難自立。我相信,一半奴隸一半自由,政府不能持久。”他預言:國家最后必然“非此即彼”。他一再強調說,美國每個公民的公民自由都在受到威脅,不論是黑人還是白人。他又說,各准州必須保持自由,因為“自由的新州”是“窮人前住并改善他們的生活條件的地方”。但是,他同意杰斐遜及其他建國元勛的看法,即:奴隸制度只應該加以控制,而不應該直接攻擊。1858年因爭奪道格拉斯在美國參議院的席位而展開“林肯–道格拉斯辯論”時,他明确指出道格拉斯的“人民主權”原則与“斯科特裁決”(1857)之間的矛盾,美國最高法院在該裁決中說:國會不能在憲法上禁止各准州實行奴隸制度。林肯雖然未能選入參議院,但是得到全國的賞識,不久就開始有人提他為1860年度的總統候選人。
1860年5月18日,林肯和他的朋友們精心准備之后,他在芝加哥舉行的共和党全國代表大會第3輪選舉中被提名為總統候選人。于是,他暫時丟開律師業務,雖然不作政演說,但將全部時間用于指導他的競選活動。他曾經寫道,他的“主要目標”是“防止共和党的隊五四分五裂”。他勸告党的工作者們“閉口不談我們可能不會同意的那些核心問題”。在共和党人團結一致、民主党人意見分歧、總共有四個候選人參加競選的情況下,林肯于11月6日獲得選舉的胜利。南方腹地沒有一個人投他的票,在全國來說,對他投票的選民不超過40%。不過,民眾的選票過于分散,他在總統選舉中嬴得了奠定乾坤的絕對多數。
總統林肯 在林肯當選后和就職前,南卡羅來納州宣布退出聯邦。為了防止南方其他各州采取同樣的行動,國會提出了各種各樣的妥協方案。最重要的是《克里坦登妥協案》,它包括(1)在已經存在奴隸制度的各卅,永遠确保奴隸制度和(2)把各准州分成蓄奴制和自由制兩种這兩項憲法修正案。林肯雖然未反對此修正案第一條,但他堅決反對第二條,更确切地說,他反對任何存一絲一毫侵犯共和党党綱中的自由土壤區要點。他在私人信件中寫道:“我是堅定不移的。”他擔心划分地區、批准奴隸制擴展的原則只會鼓勵大農場主帝國主義分子到美國邊境以南去尋找新的蓄奴地區,從而會“使我們再一次走上通住奴隸帝國的老路”。他從斯普林菲爾德的老家勸告國會中的共和党人在表決時反對划分地區。這一提議被委員會否決了。此后又有6個州退出聯邦,与南卡羅來納州合在一起結成美國南部邦聯。
因此,在林肯就職之前,美國面臨著一場分裂的危机。南北雙方的注意力特別集中于查爾斯頓港的薩姆特要塞。這一要塞尚在施工,由R.安德森少校率領的關軍駐守。南部聯邦對它提出主權要求,並從該港其他几個設防工事進行威脅。林肯預料到會出麻煩,他還在斯普林菲爾德時就祕密請求美軍總司令W.斯科特做好准備“在就職典禮時和就職以后,根据具体情況,或是堅決把守或是重新奪取各要塞”。林肯在1861年3月4日的就職演說中,除高歌聯邦
不可摧毀和呼吁地區和諧外,重申他的薩姆特政策如下:“委托給我的權力將用于把守、占有和敢得屬于政府的財產的地方,征收各种稅金和進口稅;但是,除為達到這些目標有所必要外,決不作任何侵犯––––既不用武力進攻任何地方的人民,也不在任何地方的人民中間施暴。”然后,在演說將近結束時,他對不在場的美國南部人說:“你們自已如不挑釁,就不會發生沖突。”
林肯剛一就職就接到報告說,如果不補充軍需或者撤退,薩姆特守軍很快就要絕糧。可是,大約有一個月,林肯遲遲沒有采取行動。他受到相互矛盾的意見的困扰。一方面,斯科特將軍、國務卿W.H.西沃德等人一再勸說說他放棄這個要塞,而且西沃德通過一個中間人告訴南部邦聯代表團該要塞實際只必然要放棄。另一方面,許多共和党人認為,任何軟弱的表示都將給本党和聯部造成災難。最后,林肯終于下令組織兩支解圍的遠征軍,一支前往薩姆特要塞,另一支開赴佛羅里達州的皮肯斯要塞(他后來講,如果當時能确信守住皮肯斯,他宁愿從薩姆特撤退)。如薩姆特遠征軍出發以前,他派一名信使去告訴南卡羅來綱納州州長:“我受美國總統之命前來通知您,現只准備向薩姆特要塞輸送給養;如果這一行動不遭抵制,沒有另行通知,決不投入兵員、武器或彈藥,但該要塞受到攻擊時則當別論。”在林肯派的遠征軍還大到達之前,南部邦聯當局已向安德森少校提出立即撤离薩姆特要寒的要求,但是少校拒絕了。1861年4月12日拂曉,港口的南部邦聯炮兵開了火。
7月4日國會開會,林肯報告說:“在那個時候,在那個地點,攻擊政府的分子挑起了武裝沖突。”但是,南部邦聯的人員則指責林肯是真正的便略者。他們說,林肯耍花招誘使他們開第一槍,以便把戰爭的罪責推在他們身上。雖然有些歷史學家重復這種控訴,但顯然是對事實莫大的歪曲。林肯下定決心保衛聯邦,為此,他認為必須采取反對南部邦聯的立場,因而,他推論出在薩姆特也可以采取這一立場。林肯的首要目標既不是挑起戰爭,也不是維持和平。為了保衛聯邦,他一定也甘愿維護和平,但是他准備冒一次戰爭風險,在他看來時間不會長。
薩姆特要塞遭受炮擊以后,林肯要求各州州長輸送兵員(弗吉尼亞和南方北部的另外三個州的反應是參加南詐邦聯)。然后,他宣布封鎖南方的港口。這些措施–––向薩姆特派遠征軍、征召義勇軍和實行封鎖––––是林肯以陸海軍總司令名義作出的初步重要決定。為了付諸實現,他還需要一個戰略力案和一個指揮系統。
斯科特將軍建議,要避免在弗吉尼亞与南部邦聯軍交戰,要控制密西西比河,並要加強對鎖使南方遭受极大的經濟困難。林肯不大相信斯科特的比較消极的和不流血的“森蚺”計划。他認為如果要嬴得這場戰爭,必須積极作戰。他否決了斯科特的意見,下令直接向弗吉尼亞前線進軍,結果,1861年7月21目邦聯軍在布爾被擊敗,全線潰退。經過一連串多多少少無且民之夜,林肯寫出整套關于軍事政策的備忘錄。他的基本思想是:部隊應該同時在几條戰線上前進,應以取得和利用密蘇里州、肯塔基州、弗吉尼亞州西部和田納西州東部聯邦派的支持為目標。後來他解釋說:“我確定對這次戰爭的總体概念是:我方人員數量多,敵方向沖突地點集中兵力比較方便;除非我方能有辦法使自已的猶勢胜過彼方,我方必然敗北;只有在同一時不間,從几個不同地點以优勢兵力威脅敵人,才能取得胜利。”這种策略,加上海軍封鎖,便是林肯戰略的實質。
1861~1864年,林肯猶疑不決,不肯把自己的想法強加給他的將領們。這時,他考驗了指揮人員和組織机构。他接受斯科特的辭職(1861-11),任命G.B.麥克萊論指揮全軍。沒有几個月,他對麥克萊倫的行動遲緩即感到不滿,將其降格任波掄馬克軍令。他對麥克萊倫的年島作戰方案是否可靠表示怀疑,一再迫使麥克萊倫改變計划,在里士滿前的七天戰住(1865-06~07)以后,命令麥克萊倫將其放棄。此后,他為弗吉尼亞方面軍試用一系列指揮官,包括J.波普、再次起用麥克萊論、A.E.伯思賽德、J.胡克和G.G.米德,但每一個人都令他失望。与此同時,他住命H.W.哈勒克為總司令,一方面提供意見,一方面當與戰地軍宙的聯絡官,但是哈勒克對于制定重大決策總是优柔寡斷。將近兩年時間,聯邦軍沒有形樹指揮有方的領導集團。林肯總統、哈勒克將軍和陸軍部長E.M.斯坦頓起著非正式的戰的委員的作用。除了經哈勒克下達正式命全以外,林肯還与各位將頗直接聯系,以自己的名義提供個人建議。對于那些以R.E.李為對手的將軍們,他建議說:目標是消滅李的軍隊,而不是攻佔里士滿或者把侵略者從北方地區赶走。
最后,林肯還要為西部戰物色一住最高指揮官。他高度評攸U.S.格蘭特指揮的維克斯堡戰役。在維克斯堡投降(1863-07-04)9天以後,他致函格蘭特,“衷心感謝”格蘭特為國家做出的“几手是無可估量的貢獻”。林肯還在信中承自己的錯誤。他說,他曾希望格蘭特繞過維克斯堡,沿密西西比河而下,兩不是橫渡該河、掉過頭來以后方接近維克斯堡。“恐怕這是一種錯誤,”他在發九賀信中說:我現在愿意親自承認,您是時的,尚我錯了。
1864年3月,林肯提升格主特為中將,授予他聯載軍最高指揮權。林肯終于找到了這樣一個人,他与W.T.謝爾曼、P.謝里登和G.H.托馬斯等精明能干的下屬能夠抵行林肯那些尚有待于實踐的大規模協同進攻的作戰思想。在林肯最終設什的最高指揮机构中,格蘭特只是其中的一員,雖然是舉足輕重的一員。林肯本人是最高統帥,掌握全盤,陸軍部長斯坦頓負責兵員和后勤補給。總參謀長哈勒克坦任總統的願問与軍人之間的聯絡官。總司令格蘭特則指揮所有的字隊,并与波托馬克的米德軍協同作戰。林肯就是這樣首創了一個最高指揮机构,它聚集一國人民的全部力量和資源以實現總體戰的宏偉戰略。他把治國之遺与指揮千軍萬馬結合在一起,成效与年俱增。如果從他缺乏戰爭藝術的訓練和經驗的觀點來看,林肯就顯得更加功勛卓著。這种缺乏雖然是不利條件,但也可能是個有利條伴。林肯不受陳腐軍事教條的束縛,能夠盡最大限度運用他的實際洞察力和常識––––有人是軍事天才––––以取得南北戰爭的胜利。
毫無疑問,林肯是真實意地獻身于人身自由的事業。在當選總統以前,他經常恨有說服力地淡論這個問題。例如,1854年他說自己交對道格拉斯對奴隸制度可能向新地區擴庶衣所抱的漠不關心的態度,“我所以反對,是因為奴隸制度本身為极端非正義的行為,”他宣告說,“我所以反對,是因為它使我們共和党人在社會上不再成為大公無私的榜樣,使仇視自由制度的敵人貌似真實地嘲笑我們為偽君子 .......... ”1855年寫信給友人T.斯皮德時,他追怀14年前兩在俄亥俄河上所作的一次气船旅行。“你可能像我一樣清楚記得,”他說,“從路易斯維爾到俄亥俄河口,船上有10個或12個奴隸,用鐐銬拴在一起。那一景象常常使我感到痛苦。而我每次途經俄亥俄河或具他任何蓄奴州邊界時,總要看到類似的情況。”
盡管如此,林肯當總統后最初并不願意采取廢途奴隸制度的政策。他的躊躇有几方面的原因。他是以保証不于涉各州內部的奴隸制為政綱而當先的,而且無論如何,他怀疑聯邦采取此種行動的合憲性。他擔心將近400萬黑奴一旦解放,很可能給美國的社會和政治生活帶來一些麻煩。尤其是,他認為必須使邊境蓄奴各州留在合眾國內,他害怕廢奴主義會驅使它們(特別是他的故鄉肯塔基州)投奔南都邦聯。因此,別人向前邁步,他則踟躕不前。當J.C.弗里蒙特將軍和D.亨特將軍在他們各自的軍區宣佈解放不忠誠的主人的奴隸時,林肯撤銷了他們的聲明。當國會通過《沒收法案》的時候(1861和1862),他沒有完全執行授權他沒收奴隸財產的各項條款。而當H.格里利在《紐約論壇報》吁請他實施這些法律時,林肯耐心地回答說(1862-08-22)說:“我在這場斗爭中最主要的目標是挽救合眾國,而不是挽救或者摧毀奴隸制度。如果不解放任何奴隸而能挽救合眾國,我必定那樣去做;如果解放全部奴隸才能挽救合眾國,我也必定那樣去做;如果解敵一部分奴隸而丟下其他不管能夠挽救合眾周,我還是要那樣去做。”同時,為了順應日益高漲的反對蓄奴的思潮,他提出了自己的一個解放計划。按照他的建議,奴隸將由州采取措施予以解放;奴隸將得到補償,由聯邦政府分擔這筆開支;解放過程將是逐涉的;解放了的奴隸將移居國外。國會表示願意通過林肯的奴隸將移居國外。但是沒有一斤邊境蓄奴州樂于實行這個計划,而且在黑人領袖中也沒有几個希望看到他們的同胞被送往國外。
林肯依然希望他的逐步解放計划最后取得成功,他采取一項极不平常的措施,1862年9月22日發長《解放宣言》草案,1863年1月1目頒布正式的《解放宣言》。他認為頒布這一著名法含是行使總統的作戰能力,完全是合法的。這一法令僅适用于美國實際上受南部邦聯控制的那–些部份,而不适用于忠于眾國的蓄奴各州,也不适用于由聯邦軍占傾的屬于南部邦聯的地區。在南北戰爭期間,《宣言》直接或間接地解放了不到20萬名奴隸。盡管如此,它具有偉大的象征意義。它表明稱肯政府的作戰目的,除南北統一外又增添了解放奴隸,并吸引英國和歐洲的自由主義輿論不斷增加對聯邦事業的支持。
林肯本人認為除了作戰時臨時措施而外,他所采取的步驟不一定符合憲法。南北戰爭結束以后,根据《宣言》解放了的奴隸會存再次淪為奴隸的危險,沒有其他任何措施保征他們的自由。現在有了另外的辦法:給憲法補充個《第十三修正案》。給國家基本法帶來這一變化,林肯起了巨大的作用。他通過共和党全國委員會主席強烈要求該党把這樣一個修正案作為重點列入他們1864年的政綱。經采納后,在政綱中是這樣陳述的:奴隸制度是叛亂的起因;總統的《宣言》旨在“對此巨大禍患給予致命的一擊”;為了〝結束和永遠禁止“奴隸制度,憲法修正案是必要的。當林肯以此政綱重新當選總統而共和党在國會中的多數有所增長的時候,他有充份的理由感到是人民委托他提出《第十三修正案》的。共和党占壓倒多數的新國會,要等到1864~1865年冬季舊國會屆滿散伙后才能召開。但是,林肯沒有等待。他對一些民主党人運用封官和勸說的乎段,總算在舊國會的會期結束之得到必要的2/3票數表決通過。當修正案送往各州批准的時候,他非常喜悅:當他自己的伊利諾伊州帶頭而其他各州一個接一大表示贊成的的候,他一而再、再而三地感到高興(他沒有活到修正案的最后正式通過而歡欣鼓舞)。
林肯理所應當得到“偉大解放者”的美名。如果說他的著名《宣言》還不能成為要求這一榮譽稱號的可靠依据,那么,他支持反對奴隸制的修正親則是一個響當當的理由了。另一個很好的根据:他是一位頜導作戰的偉大人物,使美國安全闖過4年的惡斗,保衛了自由。最後一個有力的基礎是,他實際表現了尊重人的价值和尊嚴,不論膚色如何。在他生前的最后兩年內,他歡迎黑人來作客,同黑人交朋友,過去的總統沒有一位這樣做過。他的朋友中有一位著名的當過奴隸的F.道格拉斯,此人後來寫到:“在我與林肯先生的歷次會見中,給我印象最深的一點是他沒有一絲一毫蔑視有色人種的偏見。”
為了取得戰爭的胜利,林肯總統必須得到廣大群眾的支持。要使南北重新聯命,首先需要北方有一定程度的團結一致。但是,北方包含著各种不同的党派,均有自已的特殊利益集團。林肯面臨的任務是盡可能吸引更多的不同党派和個人來支持他的政府。因此,他把大部份時間和注意力放在政治上,而政治的表現之一就是吸引此种支持的藝術。對於聯邦事業來說,非常幸運的,林肯為具有罕見的政治手腕的一位總統。他有本領呼吁同代的政治并用他們的語言與之交談。他有一种排解私人意見分歧的天才,能使相對立的人們同樣效忠。他接過分贓制,且善于利用它,他以加強他的政府和推進施政目標為原則分配政府職位。
反對党依然活躍,而且有強大力量。其成員有主戰民主党人和主和民主党人,后者通稱“銅頭蛇”,一小部分勾結敵人。林肯千方百計爭取主戰民主党人的支持,這樣他使《第十三修正案》得到了國會反時批准。只要有線的可能,他就把主和的民主党人爭取過來。紐約州州長S.西摩是主和民主党人之一,林肯非常重視他關于該州征兵名額的怨言。另一名主和民主党人,俄亥俄州選出的國會議貫C.L.伐蘭狄甘鋃鐺入獄服刑,林肯將徒刑改為不越過南部邦聯前線的流放。在處理有謀反嫌疑者時,林肯有時授權他的將軍們強行逮捕。這在說明所以如此行動的裡由時講:為了保衛合眾國、從而統護整個憲法,他必須允許憲法的一些部分作出潛時的犧牲。他命令他的將軍們關閉几家報紙,但只是短暫時期的,他很快就撤銷了禁令怀有敵意的《芝加哥時報》出刊的軍方命令。在給一位手下將軍的信中,他這樣試述了自己的政策:“只有在你所指揮的部隊受到明顯侵害時,才得逮捕有關的人以壓取締集會和查封報紙;否則,一概不許干涉任何方式的意見表達,也不得容升他人迸行粗暴干涉。在這方面,希望你极端謹慎、鎮靜和耐心地處理問題。”如果考慮到當時的種种危險和挑釁行為,林肯對待政敵和敵對的報刊是十分寬大的了。批評家們常常指責林肯是獨裁者,其實他根本不是。
共和党內部派別林立,且有些人與林肯唱對台戲,給林肯造成的困難不亞于民主党人的各种活動。的确,他和大多數共和党人很好地商定了他們的主要經濟目標。經他批准,共和党人將他從早年輝格党時代就大力提倡的基本細領制訂成法律,如包括保護關稅法,國有銀行制度法,以及由聯邦資助改善國內狀況,特別是資助建設通住太平洋岸的一條鐵路。但共和党人在有關進行戰爭和戰爭目標的許多問題上內部意見不一。出現了兩大派別:“激進派”和“保守派”。林肯在思想上傾向保守派,但他在激進派中也有許多朋友,他力求保持自己對兩派的領導權。在任命總統顧問團時,他選擇了几名1860年競選提名的對手,同時使党內每個重要派別埔有代裏參加。他很明智地网羅了保守派杰出人物西沃德和激進派著名頭領S.P.蔡斯。他巧妙地克服了顧問團危机,使兩派人物都當總統顧問,直至1864年蔡斯辭職。
6. 不列顛簡明百科全書上;中國大百科全書出版社;2005。
他代表輝格党當選眾議院議員(1847~1849)。1849起擔任巡回律師,成為全州最成功的律師之一,以精明敏銳、常識丰富、誠懇真實(人稱“誠實阿貝”而聞名。1856年加入共和党,1858年該党提名他為參議員選舉侯選人。在与S.A.道格拉斯的連續7場辯論(即林肯––––道格拉斯辯論)中,他陳言反對把奴隸制度擴展到西部准州,然而他并不反對奴隸制度本身。雖然他在道德上反對奴隸制,卻不是一位廢奴者。選戰期間,林肯力圖反擊道格拉斯說他是一個危險的激進份子,他向大眾一再保証不贊同讓黑人獲得政治上的平等權利。盡管他輸了選舉,但這些辯論卻使他聞名全國。1860年他在總統大選中與道格拉斯再度對壘,結果以极大优勢獲胜。但是,南方反對他對准州奴隸的主張,而在他就任之前,南方7州脫离聯邦。他的整個任期都耗在隨后發生的美國南北戰爭中。他是优秀的戰時領袖,發揮了高度的指揮能力,調度全國的力量及資源致力于這場戰爭,并且把治國的才能和有人所說的全面指揮部隊的軍事天賦結合起來。然而,他廢除了某些公民自由權,特別是人身保拌狀,他的將領又關閉了几家報紙,住民主党和共和党人,包抬他自几的一此閣員感到不安。為了團結北方并影響國外輿論,他發表了《解放宣洽》(1863),而《葛底鄭堡演說》(1863)使戰爭的目標更加崇高。戰事的拖延影響了北方人的決心,而他的連任選情并不樂觀,但策略性的戰役胜利扭轉了局勢,讓他在1864年輕松米畋G.B.麥克萊倫。他的政綱包括通過宣告奴隸制為非法的《第十三號修正案》(1865年批准)。第二次就職時,由于胜力在望,他溫和地談到重建南方并建立和諧的聯邦。戰爭結束后5無(4月14日),他被J.W. 布思槍殺。
7. 百科全書
1860年5月18日林肯在芝加哥舉行的共和党全國代表大會上被提名為總統候選人。此后他將全部時間用于競選活動。11月6日,在總共有4位候選人參加的選舉中林肯嬴得了胜利。林肯當選以后,南卡羅來納州宣布退出聯邦。為了防止南方其他各州采取同樣的行動,國會提出了各种各樣的妥協方案。因此,在林肯就職之際美國面臨著一場分裂的危机。他剛剛就職就接到馬主守薩姆特的部隊的報告,說如果不派兵增援或下令撤退,部隊很快就要絕糧。斯科特將軍、國務卿謝五德等人一再勸說林肯放棄這座要塞。但是許多共和党人卻認為,任何軟弱的表示都將給共和党和聯邦造成災難。林肯經過研究之后終于下令組織兩支遠征軍,一支前往薩姆特解圍,另一支開赴佛羅里達州的皮肯斯要塞。然而在遠征軍到達之前,南方聯盟當局已向駐守薩姆特的安德森少校提出即撤离要塞的要求。由于遭到嚴辭拒絕,1861年4月12月黎明時分南方聯盟的炮兵隊向薩姆特要塞開火。林肯決心保衛聯邦,他認為必須采敢反對南方聯盟的立場。
薩姆特要塞遭受炮擊以后林肯要求各州州長輸送兵員,然后宣布對南方的港口實行封鎖。這是林肯以陸海軍總司令名義作出的初步決定。他相信要嬴得這場戰爭必須積极作戰,于是下令直接向弗古尼亞進兵。1861年7月21日聯邦軍在布爾溪被擊敗,全線潰退。1861年11月斯枓特將軍辭職。林肯住用麥克菜倫指揮全軍。但是沒有几個月他對麥克萊倫的行劫遲緩即感到不滿。此后為了給弗吉屁亞方面軍尋找合适的指揮官,林肯試用了一系列人員,包抬波普、伯恩賽德、胡克和米德,但每一個人都合他失望。與此同時林肯任命亨利‧哈勒克為總司令,俱是哈勒克對于制定重大決紫慫是优梁寡斷。近兩年的時間聯邦軍沒有形成指揮有方的領導集團。林肯總統、哈勒克將軍和陸軍部長斯坦頓形成一個非正式的戰時委員會。除了經哈勒克下達正式命令以外,林肯還与各位將領直接聯系。最后林肯為西部戰場物色了一位最高指揮官。他高度評价格蘭特指揮的維克斯堡戰役。在維克嘶堡無條件投降(1863.7.4)9大以后,林肯致函格蘭特說:“衷心感謝您為國家所作的几乎是無可估堅的貢獻。”1864年3月林肯提升格蘭特為中將,授予池聯邦軍最高指揮權。陸軍部長斯坦頓負責兵員和后勤補給;總參謀長哈勒克擔住總統的顧問和總統與軍人之間的聯絡官。就這樣,林肯在組織最高司令部的過程中起3先鋒作用,他的成就是非凡的。他能夠出色地運用自已的軍事無才去爭取南北戰爭的胜利。
林肯長初并不願意采取廢除奴隸制的政策。他的躊躇有几方面的原因:第一,他是以保証不千涉名州內部的奴隸制為政船而當選的;第二,他擔心400万黑奴一旦解放,會給美國的社會和政治生活帶來一些麻煩;第三,他認為必須千方百計地使蓄奴各州留在合眾國內,一旦采取廢奴主義的政策,這些州就可能脫离聯邦,參加南方聯盟。林肯曾提出一份解放計划。按照他的建議奴隸將西國家采取措施予以解放;奴隸主將得到補償,由聯邦政府分擔這筆弁支;解放的過程將是逐步的、有條不紊的;解放了的奴隸將移居國外。雖然國會通過林肯計划所需要的資金,但是沒有一個邊界蓄奴州樂意采納這項計划。林肯于1862年9月22日發表《解放宣言》草案,1863年1月1日頒布正式的《解放宣言》。在南北戰爭其間《宣言》解放了20萬名奴隸。林肯作為偉大的解放者而為世人所崇敬。他在世的最后兩年歡迎黑人來作客,並与黑人交朋友。從前當過奴隸的弗雷德里克‧道格拉斯寫道:“在我与林肯先生的歷次會見中,給我印象最深的一點是他沒有一絲一毫蔑視有色人种的偏見。”
林肯和大多數共和党人商定主要的經濟目標。經他批准,共和党人將他大力提倡的基本納領制訂成法律,其中包括保護關稅法,國有銀行制度,聯邦政府建設太平洋大鐵路的資助法。在1864年競選時期,林肯親自制訂主要戰略,并對各州競選委員會進行指導。他竭力使盡可能多的士兵和水手參加投票。結果林肯獲得大多數民眾選票(占55%),擊敗了民主党候選人麥克萊倫將軍。1865年4月14日,約翰‧威爾克斯‧布思向坐在華盛頓福特劇院的林肯連開數槍,翌日凌晨林肯与世長辭。
8. 被誤解的世界歷史;作者羅文興;海鴿文化出版圖書有限公司;2007。
林肯 –––– 「偉大解放者」還是「种族歧視者」
亞伯拉罕‧林肯(Abraham Lincoln)美國第十六任總統(一八六一~一八六五)。他因頒佈《解放黑人奴隸》宣言和領導南北戰爭取得勝利而聞名於世,並与華盛頓、羅斯福並稱為美國歷史上最偉大的三位總統。由於南北戰爭中所作出的突出貢獻,林肯一生都被「偉大解放者」的光環所籠罩。然而,無情的事實是,這位以推劫种族平等事業著稱的偉人,競是一位不折不扣的「种族主義者」。
透過自學,他在一八三六年成為律師,並當選溈州議員。一八四七年當選眾議員。依籠個人不屈的意志和不懈的努力,在經歷了無數失敗和挫折後,林肯終於在一八六O年當選為美國總統,成為美國歷史上僅有的「平民總統」。就任後,他進行了大刀闊斧的改革,積极推動「西進軍動」,推動資本主義生產方式的發展。但隨著顧土的進一步擴大,在新興的州上要實行哪种制度的問題逐步尖銑和升級,以林肯為首的北方政府贊同新領土成為自由州,但卻遭到南方种植園主的頑固抵抗。一八六二年二月,南方奴隸制种植園主在里士滿另主新政游,四月份發動判亂,向北方突然發動軍事進攻,林肯政府裡迫迎戰。一場決定美利堅民族未來發展之路內部戰爭爆發了,史稱「南北戰爭」(一八六一~一八六四)。
內戰初期,由於準備不足,北方軍隊節節敗退。為了扭轉戰局,林肯總統頒布了一系列有利於團結民眾的法令:一八六二年五月, 《宅地法》實施,規定公民只需要交納十美元登記費即可獲得美國西部士地的耕种權,耕种滿五年后,便可以獲得該土地的所有權。對於長鯧處為被封建种植園主壓迫的人民來論,上地什主比生命還重要。這項法令最大程度地滿足了廣大人民對非土地的潤求。次年一月,一項影響更為深還的宣言書正式頒佈,這就是《解放黑人奴隸宣言》。依照該宣言,在南方各州參加叛亂的黑人奴隸立刻得到解放,但沒有參加叛亂的南北邊界蓄奴州的黑人奴隸除外。這是自北美大陸被發現佔領以來,黑人奴隸第一次被政府宣告擁有法律上的自由權。在這一宣言的強大作用下,美國大約有四百方黑人奴隸獲得了自由,他們在對封建勢力的鬥爭中發揮了至關重要的作用,直接導致了戰事的逆轉並成為最終取得胜力的中堅力量。由於這一宣言是在內戰期間作為戰時的一項軍事措施頒佈的,只具有臨時效力,所以在內戰結束後,美國國會先後於一八六五年和一八六八年以第十三~十四憲法修正案的形式确立了憲法地位,最終正式廢除了黑人奴隸制,在消除種族歧視、真正達到人權平等的道路上邁出了堅實的一步。林肯也因為該宣言獲得了民眾巨大的支持,並在一八六四年總統大選中再次當選。
但是,雖然歷史證明《解放黑人奴隸宣言》的發表是有效的、及時的以及必要的,卻不能由此判斷出宣言的宣導者林肯,就是一位積极推動种族平等的先驅,是一位忠實的「种族平等主義者」。史學家們也在肯定《解放黑人奴隸宣言》里程碑般的作用同時,對林肯本人的政治傾向產生怀疑,認為該宣言的發表並非出於林肯本人對黑人農奴制的反對和對人權平等的追求而采取的「自覺的和主動的行動」,而是在很大程度上懾於廢奴派的壓力和戰事的壓力。而美國黑人作家兼黑人雜誌《伊波尼》的執行總編輯本內特的著作 –––– 《逼上榮耀:林肯的白人夢》一書更是明确地宣稱,林肯頒佈實施的《解放宣言》純粹是「一場騙局」,林肯「其實是一個種放主義者,与希特勒沒區別。」同時作者還說「林肯既狡猾又愛撒謊」,美國人民不應該再稱他「誠實的艾此」(林肯綽號)。
成為總統後的林肯,也並未像人們後來所想像的那樣,致力於爭取黑人良好的生存條件和政治權力。相反的,他卻繼續著自己年輕埋下的「歧視理念」。他曾在兩次國情會議中主張把黑人驅逐出美利堅大陸,以維護國家和民族的正統性知穩定性。本內特早在一九六八年發表的《林肯是個白人至上主義者嗎?》一文中指出,林肯一直堅持認為驅逐黑人出境是解決美國黑奴的良方。在《宅地法》頌佈之前,他曾主張將美國的西部專門留給白人,並支持一項禁止里人在他們的家鄉伊利諾州定居的法律。林肯什至還認為,黑人是引發戰亂的根源,內戰的爆發應當師咎於黑人,他宣稱:「如果是為了我們白人,就不會爆發戰爭。」
即使在戰爭爆發後,林肯總統還是沒有立即放棄他的种族觀念,不顧立刻廢除奴隸制度。在《宅地法》頒佈之後,他仍然十分猶豫,態度不夠堅決,對於廢奴制之外的途徑還存有幻想。
對於《解放黑人奴隸宣言》訂立的初衷,也遠非《美國反對奴隸制度協會章程》所說的「訴諸於人民的天良、善念和利害 .......... 我們相信對於被壓迫者、對於我們整個國家、對於我們的後代、對於上帝,我們有議務盡我們法偉範圍內的力量來消除奴隸制度 ..........」如此神圣而正義,林肯政府的初表十分的實際:宣言不會給黑人帶來真正的自由,卻會給資產階級帶來豐厚的回報。最直接的促成類頒佈宣言的原因是基於戰爭的迫切性,急需要爭取人們的支持。《宅地法》雖然可以促使更多的人支持北方軍,卻無法從實質上迅速提尚果隊的人數和戰鬥力,而當時美國數量龐大而又未被充份利用的資源就是黑人奴隸,如果能夠動員黑人奴隸們加入到北方軍中來,那麼在短時間內就能夠扭轉被動的局面。而一旦黑奴獲得自由,勢必會极大削弱南方軍團的戰鬥實力和經濟供給。更深一層原因來自於戰爭結束後對資本主義的巨大推動作用:廣大解放的、獲得人身自由的黑人們,在戰場上為了獲得的自由市浴血捍衛;而當戰爭勝力後,他們才發現,夢想中的生活並沒有出現,除了一枚共和目的勳章和所謂的自由,他們其實己經一無所有 ––– 沒有土地,沒有財產,沒有冢,如果要生存,他們唯一的出路就是再次出賣自己的自由,成為資產階級的雇傭工人。這對於標榜平等自由的資產階級,無疑於天上掉下的餡餅:而對於黑人而言,這種只存在於紙面上的權利,沒有給他們帶來任何實質上的改變,只是從一個痛苦的深淵跌入了別一個絕望的無底洞。
林肯的好友惠特尼以及當時的國務卿西華德等人的談話,都可以佐證林肯對解放黑奴的「真實想法」。惠持尼說,《解放宣言》是個「幻象」,西華德也說《解放宣言》只是個「幻影」;而被稱為近代「最了不起的林肯學者」的蘭道爾也說:「《解放宣言》並沒有解放一個黑奴。」
雖然、林肯本人從來就沒想要成為美國多元文化的鼻祖,也沒有希望成為一位人道主義者,但由於南北戰爭的胜利,在客觀上維護了國家和民族的統一,促進了資本主義經濟的迅來發展,很多林肯的支持者仍將其視為「最偉大」的總統。隨著一八六五年,歌劇院的一聲槍響,林肯總統被奴隸主支持者、演員約翰‧魏克斯‧布思剌殺,更樹立了在美國人民心目中至高無上的在奴隸解放道路上「殉道者」的形象。在華盛頓的林肯紀念堂,每年要迎接成千上萬的來自全世界的林肯散仰者。連馬克思也曾經這樣評价林肯:「他是一位達到了偉大境界而仍然保持自已优良品質的罕有人物。這位出類拔萃和道德高尚的人竟是那謙虛,以致只有在他成為殉道者倒下去之後,全世界才發現他是一位英雄。」
我們肯定、尊重、敬仰林肯總統在逆境中孜孜進取的精神,大無畏的改革魄力,戰爭中臨危不懼、果敢審慎的作風,更要認識到他本人在重大問題上真正的政治態度和傾向,認識到《解放黑人奴隸宣言》只是特定條件下的產物,並非其真實意志的反映。不因功績而掩蓋缺陷,也不因惡行耐全盤否定,還這位被誤解的「偉大解放者」本來面目,這才是正裡解讀歷史的態度。
9. 歷史懸案大全集;編著:楊紅林、翟文明;中國華僑出版
社;2010。
1834年,林肯加入了輝格党,并終于在1834年當選為伊利諾斯州的議員,從而正式開始其政治生涯。不久,林肯又當選為州議會輝格党領袖。1846年,他進一步當選為國會眾議員。
當時的美國社會,正面臨著一個十分嚴峻的社會問題,這就是南方諸州所施行的奴隸制不但日益引起奴隸的反抗,而且越來起影響到整個美國的國家利益。由于歷史所造成的原因,當時美國南方諸州的奴隸制非常猖獗。一方面,在奴隸主的殘酷壓榨和迫害下,廣大黑奴過著暗無天日的生活,遭到了世界各國所具有正義感的人士的譴責;另一方面,由于美國的版圖日益廣大,而南方的奴隸主們竟妄圖這种野蠻的制度壙弓長到新加入聯邦的西部各州,這就与北方的工業資本主義產生了矛盾。于是,在奴主義者們的發起下,一場轟轟烈烈的解放黑奴的運動開始了。而奴隸制度的廢除,就成為當時美國社會最敏感的政治問題,北方与南方各州之間形成了水火不容之勢。
1854年,主張廢除和限制奴隸制的北方各州人士成立了共和党,而林肯很快就成為這個新党的領導者。不久,南部奴隸主競派遣一批暴徒擁入堪薩斯州,試圖用武力張制推行奴隸制度,從而引起了堪薩斯內戰。這一事件使林肯意識刮斗爭的尖銳性,于是他朋确宣布了“為爭取自由和廢除奴隸制而斗爭”的政治主張。1856年,林肯作為共和党副總統候選人競選失敗。1858年,林肯發表了著名的廢奴主義宣言,要求限制黑人奴隸制的發展,實現祖國統一,他說:“一個分崩离析的國家是維持不久的,我堅信,我們這個政府不會永遠容忍這种半奴隸制、半自由制的狀況。我不希望聯邦制解體,更不希望我們這個國家崩潰。我想信奴隸制終究要歸于滅亡的,不分地域,南北奴隸們都會獲得自由的。”這一宣言立即震動了美國,因為它不僅表達了北方資產階統的願望,同時也反映了全國人民的意願,因而為林肯嬴得了巨大聲望。
18603年3月,眾望所歸的林肯作為共和党候選人,以高票當選為美國第16屆總統,但他馬上就不得不面對前所未有的嚴峻的國內外形勢。由于与林肯的政治主丐長有不可調和的矛盾,南哥諸州決定起來反抗,什至情以分裂美國為代价。在林肯當選后的3個月中,先后就有11個州宣布退出聯邦,他們組建“南部聯盟”,另外組成美國政府,還推舉出總統和副總統,并制定了新憲法,開始公年叛亂。內戰一能即發,北片衣權岌岌可危。1861年4月12日,南方聯盟開始向聯都軍隊發起攻擊,內戰正式爆發,這就是美國歷史上著名的南北戰爭。在戰爭初期,由于各種复雜的因表,聯邦軍隊一再失利,而黑奴問題也沒有根本解決。為了獲得包括黑奴在內的廣大艮眾的支持,在關鍵時刻,1862年9月22日,林肯宣布了親自起草的具有偉大歷史意叉的文獻––––《解放黑人奴隸宣言》草案(即后來的《解放宣宣》),宣布廢除奴隸制,解放黑奴。從此,由於极大地調動了廣大民眾的熱情,北方聯邦軍隊獲得了最廣泛的支持,戰爭形勢才開始發生了明顯的變化,北部軍隊很快地由防御轉入了進攻,終于在1864年獲得了徹底的胜利。而《解放宣言》,也由此成為“聯邦成立以來美國歷史上最主要的文件”。
10. 美國內戰(1861~1865);世界戰爭通鑒。
早在17世紀中期,英國殖民者為了開發北美大陸,攫取超額利潤,把大批黑人從非洲販運到北美,建立了慘無人道的奴隸制度。以黑奴勞動為基礎的美國奴隸制經濟,是美國資本主義的社會化大生產鏈條中不可缺少的坏節和組成部分,它的生產的最終目的知原動力是追求剩余值、增殖財富。它不同于古典奴隸制而屬商品隸制。它為了從奴隸身上最大限度地榨取每一滴血汗,比古代奴隸制帶有更大的殘酷性。黑奴在監工的皮鞭下勞動,每天工作長達18或19小時,被剝奪了一切自由,什至連建立家庭的權利也沒有。即使身強力壯的黑奴,也往往勞動七八年后就活活累死。獨立戰爭前,殖民地有50万黑人,主要集中在南方5個殖民地,其中90%是奴隸。北、中部殖民地實行的是家庭奴隸制,南方5個殖民地實行的是种植園奴隸制。在獨另戰爭時期進行的民主改革中,北、中部8個州廢除了奴隸制,南方奴隸主仍死死抓住奴隸制度不放,1787年制定的聯邦憲法還對奴隸制加以默認,使之何法化。
1857年最高法院的《斯科特判決案》宣布奴隸制度在全國都是合法的,表明奴隸主公然要把奴隸制擴大到全國。
圯方反奴隸制的共和党成立。1860年共和党候選人林肯當選為總統,這成為內戰的導火線。因為共和党在綱領中明卻宣布堅決反對奴隸制的擴張。所以共和党在大選中獲胜意味著奴隸主把奴隸擴大的西部去的希望娑挫。為了挽回局面,奴隸主決定在林肯上台前發動判亂。南卡羅來納等7個州先后宣布脫离聯邦,並于1861年2月4日成利“美利堅諸州同盟”,定都蒙哥馬利(后遷至里士滿),頒布了“憲法”,推選戴維斯為“總統”。南方加緊進行軍事總動員,征召10萬志愿軍,並胸置了大批軍火物資。北方仍幻想以讓步來使南方重返聯邦,但遭到拒絕。4月12日,南部同盟軍(簡稱“南軍”)迸攻聯邦軍(簡稱“北軍”)的薩姆特要塞(位于南卡羅來納州),經2天炮擊后攻占。4日15日,林肯政府正式宣布對南部同盟作戰,美國內戰(又稱“南北戰爭”爆發了。此后,又有4個州先后參加叛亂的一方
相比之下,南方參与判亂的共有11州,人口900万(內400万是人),各方面遠遜于北方。南方之所以能与北方抗,是因為他們在軍事上古有許多有利條件:1. 南方在本土作戰,熟悉地形,易于就近得到補給。所以,盡管南方經濟落后,海岸又被嚴密封鎖,后勤補給系統也落后,卻沒有因補給問題而影響過任何一次戰役。2. 南方軍官素質高于北方。美國高級軍官以南人居多數,名將羅伯特‧李、“石牆”托馬斯‧杰克遜、兩個約翰斯頓、兩個希爾斯、朗斯特里特以及博雷加德等人均是美國軍事將領中的佼佼者。開戰時900名美國陸軍軍官的1/3、海軍軍官的1/4加入南軍。而北方,高級將領多由政客擔任,不乏庸才。因擴軍速度過快,許多人一入住就成了尉級什至校級軍官。因此北方軍官層次普遍缺乏作戰經驗。3. 南方的戰備工作已進行了10年之久。南方首腦人物早在1850年就已預見到南北之間的個歧非武力不能解訣。威廉‧特列斯考特宣稱“沒有一個國家政治上的或熟不是經過嚴酷而灼熱的內戰。”在1860年大選期間,南方已預料倒林肯將獲胜。南卡羅來納州率先成立了“一分鐘人”民兵,南方域鄉各地還建立了客種軍事組織。戰爭爆發時,南方已征召了10萬志願軍。由于經常處于黑人暴動的威脅之下,所以南方奴隸主普遍能騎善射。1862年4月16日,南方還在美國歷史上第一次實行義務兵役制使部隊兵源得到了保証。戰時南方軍隊人數為:1861年7月,11.2万人;1862年1月,35万;1863年1月,44.7萬;1864年1日,48萬:1865年1月,44.5万。南方軍隊盡管人數比北方少一半,但卻憑著較高的素質彌補了人力的劣勢,與北方整整撫衡了4年之久。4. 南方軍火工業較發達。南方工業盡管落后,但是卻把軍火±業放在优先發展的地位。里土滿的兵工厂年產步槍6萬支:里士滿的持里迪加鋼厂設備优良,可制造鋼甲和重型大炮。南方還生產大量武器彈藥。林肯的前任布坎南曾支持把許多武器彈藥運往南方儲存起來。此外,聯邦重要的軍火庫、軍事要塞和海軍基地也多設在南方。南方宣布判亂后,很快便占領了這些地方,獲得大批軍火,僅武器就有19萬件,財產總值3000万無。5. 南方還得到英法等國的各種援助。由于南方是英法兩國土業用棉的主要供應者,兩國政府都炊削弱美國實力、維護本國廉价原料來源的立場出發,全力支持南方。奴隸主集團也自恃棉花的重要性,得意洋洋地夸耀:“你們不敢對我們的棉花開戰,世界上沒有任何一個大國敢對棉花開戰!棉花就是王”。英法兩國僅從1861~1863年便輸送給南方步槍40多万支,此郊,南方漫長的海岸線和眾多的港滂,使北方海軍防不胜防,而南方則可以很容易地避開北方的封鎖,從國外運回物資進行戰爭。有這些有利條件,認為很快就能打敗方。但南方根本的弱點是:雙方經濟力量相差縣殊,低估了北方人民的力量以及南方人民特是廣大黑人奴隸的強烈反抗,南方失道寡助,這就注定了他們失敗的命運。
林肯采取的革命軍事政策
戰爭失利,林肯政府荀臨著嚴重的危机。國內人儿、動蕩, 后方“銅頭蛇”反革命分子的活動十分猖獗,人參軍的熱情銳減。許多地方人民君眾紛紛上街示威游行,強烈要求林肯清洗軍隊和政府中的消极怠工者和反革命分子,立即解放黑人奴隸,無償把土地分給人民。各政府派別尤其是激進派向林肯施加壓力。當時的國際形勢也很緊張。1862年夏天,英國和歐洲一些國家已在准備承認南方為“獨立國家”,英國准備李一且入侵北方成功就立即付諸行動。8日,卡修斯‧克萊面見林肯,勸他赶快解放黑人。美國駐西班牙大使舒爾茨在電報中也指出,如果美國發表一項解放黑人奴隸的宣言,那么“歐洲輿論馬上就會強烈地、一面倒地同情我們,以 致..........沒有一個歐洲政府會敢于借宣言或行動置身于一個受世界譴責的制度那一方面。這時林肯也認識到:解放奴隸可以促使英國人及國際輿記同情和支持北方,從而有利于打破英國武裝干涉的企圖。他對一個代表團說:我已認識到“解放奴隸會在歐洲造成有利于我們的后果。”除國際四素外,林肯還認識到:解放奴隸有助于解決困扰北方的兵源問題:一則可以鼓舞北方青年參軍的熱情,二則可以推動南方奴錄逃亡,從而瓦解南方的經濟基礎 ––– 种植園經濟。1862年9月,林肯指出:解放奴隸“無疑將把對于南方极其重要的勞動者拉過來,從而削弱叛亂者的力量。”“假如不采取解放奴隸的政策的話,是不可能平息達個叛亂 的.......... 解放奴隸會給我們帶來在南方土地上生長起來的20萬人(指黑人 –––– 引者)。它還會給我們更多的東西,它使敵人減少同樣多的東西。”
這時軍事上的危机也對林肯產生了壓力。半島戰役之后,林肯寫道:“事情越來越糟”,“終于感到了我們在我們所奉行的作戰計划上已經走到了繩子的盡頭。我們必須拿出最後一張牌,並且改變我們的策略,否則就要輸了。我現在決定采取釋放奴隸的政策。”總之,解放奴隸是關系到能否平息這一場叛亂的垂大問題。林肯不愧是偉大的政治家,他看出要想取得戰爭的胜利,恢复聯邦的統一,除了解於黑人奴隸外,別無選擇。這時,聯邦在西線胜利使聯邦已控制了4個邊境州,林肯原先的顧慮解除了。于是,他順應歷史潮流,排除了保守勢力的阻礙,毅然采取了一系列重大的革命措施:
1. 1862年9月22日發表初步的《解放宣言》1863年1月1日正式發衷《解放宣言》,庄嚴宣告;凡參加叛亂的州的奴隸“從現在起永遠獲得自由。”允許“條伴合适的”黑人參加北方的軍隊。宣言擊中了南方的要害。敲響了近200年罪惡奴隸制的喪鐘,千吏400萬黑人奴隸看到了自由的曙光,鼓舞他們起來斗爭。宣言還使世界人民認識到美國所發生的不僅是一場內戰,而且是一場埋葬野蠻的、非人到的奴隸制度的正義戰爭。世界各國人民特別是英法人民支持北方的正義事業,阻止了英法的國進行武裝干涉的企圖。需要指出的,林肯解放奴隸主要是出于軍事上的考慮。林肯對陸生部副部長查爾斯‧達納說過:修改憲法以便禁止奴隸制度,是一項最重要的軍事措施,等于是在戰場上補充了至少相當于100萬人的新部隊。林肯還指出:為了拯救聯邦,解放奴隸是軍事上一個必然步驟。
3. 武裝黑人 1862~1863年,林肯決定實行武裝黑人的政策,這個政策一公布,馬上有大批黑人涌到招兵站,爭先恐后地報名當兵。在前線,也不斷有逃亡奴隸參加到北軍的行列。黑人投身戰場給北軍增添了一支生力軍。因為黑人最仇恨奴隸制度,具有為自身的解放和自申獻身的強烈愿望,所以作戰非常勇敢。
10. 林肯
獨立戰爭以后,美國北方的資產階級和南方的种植園奴隸主都狂熱地向西擴張。但北方資產階級主張在新占的土地上禁止使用奴隸,建立沒有奴隸勞動的自由州,以發展資本主義。南方種植園奴隸主則力圖把黑奴制推廣到這些地區去,使新成立的州變為蓄奴州。長期以來,雙方在調整自由州和蓄奴州數且的問題上不斷發生激烈的爭斗。
林肯站在北方資產階級的立場上,投入了反對南方種植園奴隸主的斗爭。1858年,他發表了一篇演說,主張限制罷奴的擴展,但為了避免南北分裂,他不贊成主即廢除黑奴則,認為應通過和平的方法來解決這個問題。北方的資產階級,由于在經濟上和南方有一定的聯系,同時又害怕廢奴運動高漲而影響自己的絕治,不敢采用革命手段廢除黑奴制,所以對林肯的主馬長十分賞識。1860年11月,林肯作為共和党的候選人當選為美國第十六屆總統。
在林肯就任總統以前,美國的十五個總統中,有十一個是南方种植園奴隸主捧上台的,其余也大多是南方奴隸主在北方的工具,遇有南北之間發生摩擦和矛盾時,往征是南方占上風。林肯的當選,意末看聯邦政府的大權將落到北方資產階級手中。為此,南方的种植園奴隸主极為恐慌,他們決定在林肯就職以前制造分裂,發動叛亂。南方各州先后宣布脫离聯邦,于1861年2月組成了南方聯盟,推選種植園奴隸主大頭且杰佛遜‧戴維斯為總統,定都弗吉尼亞州的里士滿,並制定了一部“憲法”,公然宣稱要以黑奴制為“天然合埋”的立國基礎。4月12日,他們不宣而戰,炮轟查爾斯頓港外的薩姆特要塞,內站由此正式開始。
林肯在就任總統之前的一段期間,曾設法与南方各州妥協,要求它們回到聯邦里來。1861年3月4日,他在就職宣言中特別強調兩點:第一,必須維持聯邦的統一;第二,美國憲法關不禁止蓄奴州使用黑奴,他本人既無意也無權干涉南方各州的黑奴制。他曾對南方說:“你們不發動進攻,就不會發生沖突。”現在,既然南方已經挑起內戰,林肯也就決定給予回擊。廣大人民杯著對种植園奴隸的無比仇恨,投入了這場兩种制度的天決戰。4月15日,林肯宣布對南乍聯盟作戰。
當時,北方在人員和物資上雖有很大潛力,但林肯政府遲遲沒有解決農民土地問題和廢除黑奴制,因此這种潛力一時沒能充分發揮出來。什至當北方的弗里芒特將軍出于軍事的需要,在密蘇里前線下令解放黑奴,宣布“對所有不忠于聯邦的奴隸主的奴隸們一律給予自由”的時候,林肯竟撤去他的歙務,宣布這個命令無效。因此,在戰爭初期,北軍一度被南方叛軍擊敗,華盛頓几乎失守,形勢十分危急。軍事上的失利激起人民群眾的強烈不滿,他們紛紛舉行集會和京威游行,要求以革命的方式來進行戰爭,立即解放黑奴,把土地無償地分給農民。在人民群眾的大力推動下,林肯終于采敢了革命性的措施。1862年5月,林肯政府顧布了《宅地法》,規定每個成年公民繳付十美元登記費,便可以在西部領取一百六十英畝土地,經營五年后,即享有這塊土地的所有權。同年9月,林肯又簽署了《解放黑奴宣言》,規定從1863年1月1日起,南方叛亂各州的黑奴“永遠獲得自由”,“可參加合眾國的軍隊”。這兩項政紫雖很不徹底,《宅地法》沒有能根本解決所有貧苦農民的土地問題,《解放黑奴宣言》也只是作為一种“戰時措施”頒布的,并且不遷用于仍留在聯邦里的四個蓄奴州,但這畢竟是林肯政府采取的兩項資產階級民主革命的措施,它极大地激發了人民的革命積极性,對南北戰爭的進程發生了重大的影響。
由于林肯政府政策上的轉變,工人和農民踊躍參軍,特別是美國工人階級更是站在斗爭的最前列,北方約有五十万至七十五万工人加入了軍隊。廣大黑人也積极投入求解放的斗爭,他們英勇作戰,流血犧牲,對戰爭的胜利作出了重大貢獻。据統計,在聯邦軍隊中有十八万六千多名黑人直接參加戰斗,還有二十五万黑人擔侔后勤。南方有五十万黑人逃离种植園,使南方在經濟上瀕于崩潰。他們還在敵人后方廣泛開展游擊戰,率制了奴隸主的十万軍隊。
11. 林肯;世界思想家文庫。
1834至1840年間他曾4次當選為伊利諾伊州議會眾議員;1847至1849年任國會議員;1856年加入共和党;1861年第一次就任美國總統。在林肯就職之際,美國面臨著一場分裂的危机。他經過對局勢的研究之后終于下含組織兩支遠征軍,決心保衛聯邦,反對南方聯盟的正場。他以陸海軍總司令名義要求各州州長輸送兵員;對南方港口實行封鎖;下令直接向弗告尼亞進兵。在組織最高司右部的過程中,他起了先鋒作用,成就是非凡的。他以自已出色的葷事天才爭取了南北戰爭的胜利。
林肯最初并不願意采取廢奴隸的政策,他曾提出一份由國家采取措施逐步解放奴隸喲計划,奴隸主的損失將由政府提供的開支得到補償,雖然國會通過了林肯計划所需的資金,但是沒有一個邊界畜奴州樂意采取這項計划。林肯于1862年9月22日發表《解放宣言》草案,1863年1月1日頒布正式的《解放宣言》,在南北戰爭其間《宣言》解放了20万名奴隸。林肯作為偉大的解放者而為世人所崇敬。林肯和大多數共和党人商定主要的經濟目標,經他批准,共和党人將他提倡的基本綱頷制訂成法律。
12. 美國的總統;胡述兆編著;臺灣務印書館;2010。
生平大事記要
1856,6,17-19 共和党第一屆全國代表大會在費城舉行,林肯的名字(他自己並未出席)被人提出為該党副總統候選又,但未獲選。
1858,6,16 接受伊利諾州共和党聯邦參議員候選人提名,並發表反對奴隸制度的演說。
1858:8,21-10,15 与伊州民主党參議員候選人(競選連任者)道格拉斯(Stephen A. Douglas)就奴隸制度的存廢問題展開七次大辯論,因林肯見解精闢,引起全國注意。
1858,11,2 在參議員選舉中,敗于道格拉斯。
1860,5,18 被共和党提名為該党總統候選人。
1860,11,6 當選總統(為共和党當選總統的第一人)
1861,3,4 就任美國第十六任總統。
1863,1,1 發表「黑奴解放宣言」Emancipation Proclamation)。
1863,11,19 發表蓋茨堡(Gettysburg,在賓州)演說。
1861,3,4 林肯就任美國第十六總統。
1861,3,11 南方同盟國會通過憲法,于4月底被脫离聯邦各州批淮生效。
1861,4,12 Fort Sumter (位于南卡羅來納州的Charleston港)的聯邦守軍遭受南、軍猛烈攻擊,揭開南北戰爭的序幕。
1861,4,14 Fort Sumter聯邦守軍向南軍投降、
1861,4,15 林肯宣佈南方同盟叛亂狀態的存在,並下合招募七万五千聯邦志願軍。(按3月4日林肯就任總統時,聯邦現役部隊全部官兵共只一万三個零二十四人。)
1861,4,17 維吉尼亞州宣佈脫离聯邦。
1861,4,19 林肯下令封鎖南卡羅來納、喬治亞、佛羅里達、阿拉巴馬、密西西比、路易斯安那及德克薩斯各州港口。4月27日擴大封鎖范圍,包括維吉尼亞及北卡羅來納兩州。
1861,5,6 南方同盟國會宣佈与聯邦政府戰爭狀態的存在。同日,阿肯色州宣佈脫离聯邦。
1861,5,20 北卡羅來納州宣佈脫离聯邦。
1861,6,8 田納西州宣佈脫离聯邦。
1861,7,4 林肯召集第三十七屆國會的持別會議,討論聯邦政府平亂事宣。
1861,7,13 國會特別會議通過決議,确認南方各州叛亂狀態存在。
1861,7,20 南方同盟國會在維吉尼亞州的Richmond集會,並定該地為其首都。
1861,7,21 南北軍隊第一次Bull Run大戰(在維吉尼亞州的東北部),南軍獲胜。
1861,8,16 林肯發布命令,禁止与叛亂各州貿易。
1861,8,30 密蘇里境內聯邦部隊指揮官佛利蒙將軍(General John C. Fermont)發佈軍事命令:凡密蘇里人民武裝對抗聯邦政府者,其所擁有的黑奴均視為當然獲得自由。林肯總統以其違背現行法精神,于9月2日下令加以糾正。
1861,9,6 格蘭特將軍(General Ulysses S. Grant)佔領肯塔基州的Padicah.
1861,10,21 波多麻河邊的Ball's Bluff大戰,北軍失利。
1861,11,1 林肯任命馬克利蘭將軍(General George B MeClellan)取代施高特將軍(General Winfield Scott)為聯邦部隊總司令。
1861,11,2 佛利蒙將軍因違抗總統命令,被肯免職。
1861,11,6 戴維斯正式被選為南方同盟的總統。
1861,11,7 密蘇里州的Belmont大戰,南軍得胜,北軍指揮官格蘭特率部退守伊利諾州Cairo。
1862,1,19-20 肯塔基竟內的Mill Springs大戰,由湯瑪斯將軍(General George H. Thomas)指揮的北軍大勝南軍。
1862,2,16 防守Fort Donelson (在田納西州)的南軍一万四千人,于被圍四天後,向格蘭特將軍投降。
1862,2,18 維吉尼亞州的親聯邦分子在惠林(Wheeling)集會,通過決議,成立西維吉尼亞州(West Virginia)。
1862,2,23 林肯任命安德魯 ‧ 詹森(Andrew Johnson)為田納西州軍事總督。
1862,3,11 林肯下令劃分聯邦隊軍區,由馬克利蘭將軍指揮波多麻河流域軍區部隊,哈勒克將軍(General Henry W. Halleck)指揮西部害區部隊。
1862,4,5 馬克利蘭將軍圍攻Yorktown(在維吉尼亞州),並于5月4日全部佔領。
1862,4,7 美國与英國簽訂條約,對奴隸賣作有效管制。
1862,4,10 林肯簽署國會兩院聯合決議,對自願解放黑奴者作適當補償。
1862,4,16 南方同盟國會通過法律,要求十八歲至三十五歲的所有白人,入住服依三年。
同日,聯邦國會通過法律,在哥傖比亞特區廢止奴隸制度。
1862,5,5 維吉尼亞州的Williamsburg大戰,雙方傷亡什眾,北軍死四百五十六人,傷一千四百一十人,南軍傷亡一千五百七十人。
1862,5,9 漢特將軍(General David Hunter)下令,宣佈在他指揮的轄區內(包括喬治亞、佛羅里達及南卡羅來納三州)全部黑奴獲得解放。此一命令于5月19日為林肯總統所否定。
1862,5,31-6,1 Fair Oaks (在維吉尼亞州)大戰,北軍獲勝,是役北軍死七百九十人,傷三千五百八十四人,南軍死九百八十人,傷四千七百四十九人。南軍指揮官莊士頓將軍(General Joseph E. Johnston)亦負重傷。
1862,6,2 李將軍(Robert E. Lee)受命為南軍東維吉尼亞及北卡羅來納區指揮官。
1862,6,19 聯邦國會通過法律,在美國各特區(Territories)內廢止奴隸制度。
1862,6,25-7,2 在維言尼亞州的半島地區,雙方激戰七日,北軍被迫退守James River。是役雙方傷亡殘重,据統計:由馬克利蘭將軍指揮的北軍死一千七百三十四人,傷八千零六十二人,失蹤六千零五十三人;由李將軍指揮的南軍死三千四有七十八人,傷一萬六千二百六十一人,失蹤八百七十五人。
1862,7,2 同日,聯邦國會通過法律,凡當選聯那政府公職者,均須宣誓效忠政府。
1862,7,11 林肯任命哈勒克將軍為聯邦部隊陸軍總司含,總部設于華府。
同日,國會通過判亂分字財產沒收法,並規定已獲自由的黑人得參加聯邦部隊服役。
1862,7,22 林肯將「黑奴解放宣言」(Emancipation Proclamation)初稿提出內閣會議討論,引起部分閣員的震驚。
1862,8,20 紐約論壇報主編格瑞利(Horace Greeley),認「為兩千万人祈禱」為題在該報發表社論,要求林肯總統堅定解放黑奴的決心。
1862,8,22 林肯對格瑞利的社論提出答覆,略謂:「我在這次鬥爭中的最高目標,乃在挽救聯邦,既不是保護奴隸制,也不是廢棄奴隸制度。」
1862,8,30 第二次Bull Run大戰,北軍失利。
1862,9,15 南哩猛將傑竟遜(Thomas J. Jackson)佔領馬里蘭州Harpers Ferry,北軍一万二千人被俘。
1862,9,17 馬里蘭州的Antietam 大戰,南軍李將軍退守波多麻j可,是役南軍死二千七百人,傷九千零二十九人,北軍死二千一百零八人,傷九千五百四十九人。
1862,9,22 林肯的「黑奴解放宣言」初稿在內閣會議中通過,並于23日在報紙上發表。
1862,9,27 南方同盟國會通過第二次徵兵法,授權戴維斯總統召集三十五歲至四+五歲的役齡入伍。
1862,10,7 英國財政部長W.E. Gladstone發表演說稱:「由戴維斯等所領導的南方同盟已經成為一個國家,我們深信他們將成功地自北方分离。」
1862,11 南卡羅來納州第一黑奴志願兵團組織完成,由希敬遜上校(Colonel Thomas Wentworth Higginson)任指揮官。這是黑奴參加聯邦部隊行列的第一支軍隊。
1862,12,13 維吉尼亞州的Fredericksburg大戰,南軍獲胜,北軍死一千二百八十四人,傷九千六百人,南軍死五百九十五人,傷四千零六十一人。
1863,1,1 「黑奴解放宣言」正式公佈,凡叛亂地區的奴隸自本月起全部解放。
1863,2,24 亞利桑那特區(Territory of Arizona)成立。
1863,5,1-4 維吉尼亞州的Chancellorsville大戰,南軍險胜。是役雙亡達兩萬餘人,南軍猛將杰克遜〔Thomas Jonathan Jackson,因作戰勇猛,外號石牆將軍(General Stonewall)〕負重傷,並于5月10死亡。
1863,5,18- 由格蘭特將軍指揮的北軍,包圍密西西比的Vicksburg,雙方苦戰四十餘日,傷亡近兩萬人。
1863,6,15 林肯總統下令,再召集十万志顧軍入伍。
1863,6,20 西維吉尼亞(West Virginia,即維吉尼亞州的西部)成為美國第三十五州。
1863,6,24 南軍李將軍率八万之眾,度過波多麻河,進襲賓夕凡尼亞州。
1863,7,1-3 賓州蓋茨堡(Gettysburg)大戰,北軍苦戰得勝,扭轉了北軍的頹勢。此役雙方傷亡之慘重,為內戰中所僅見:北軍死三千一百五十五人,傷一万四千五百二十九人,失蹤五千三百六十五人;南軍死三千九百零三人,傷一萬八千七百三十五人,失蹤五千四百二十五人。
13. 是條旗下的美國;博鋒主編;外文出版社;2013。
一半奴役一半自由
美國獨主后,南北方的發展道路并不相同,南方實行种植園黑人奴隸制度,而北方則大力廢展工業經濟。
黑人在南方被視為奴隸主的財產,他們沒有獨立人格,也沒有自由,過著悲慘的生活。雖然美國在獨立後提出了人人平等和自由的主張,但是南方仍然實行著敏隸制。因為美國的開國者為了得到南方奴隸主階級的支持,默認了奴隸制的存在。這种一半奴役一半自由的現象,在美國獨立豹60年間一直存在著。
這种現象有著本質的矛盾,北方的大工業需要自由流動的勞動力,南方的种植園經濟則需要固記寄居在土地上的勞動力。1850年左右,南北方因奴隸的爭執進入了臼熱化階段,爭論焦點不是要不要廢除奴隸制,而是新加入的州里是否元許實行奴隸制,這直接影響到自由州同奴隸州在聯邦政府內的權力分配上的平衡。
1850年后,美國北方崛起了共和党,他們主張實行自由勞工制度,尤其希望在美國遼闊的西部新邊疆能夠廢除奴隸制,堅決反對奴隸制向西部各州擴張。由此,南北矛盾日益尖銳化。
“黑人解放者”
美國歷史上有一位被稱為“黑人解放者”的偉大總統,名叫亞伯拉罕‧林肯。
1856年,在北方各州為主張廢奴和限制奴隸制成立共和党后,林肯便頭輝格党中退出,加入了共和党,並很快成為該党的一名政治新星。6月,在費城召開的笫一屆共和党大會中,林肯雖然只被提名該党副總統候選人而未當選,但他獲得了數且不少的票數。
1858年,伊利諾伊州的共和党和民主党,分別提名林肯和史蒂芬‧道格拉斯為國會參議員候選人。史蒂芬‧道格拉斯是一位來自伊利諾伊州的白种人优越論者,民主党的著各活動家、民主党北方党領袖。可以說,他是林肯在政治主涯中的強勁對手。
他們兩人在對待奴隸問題上的著法截然不同,在竟選期間展開了激烈的辮記,從8月到10月,林肯与道格挂斯在伊利諾州7個不同地區的講台上展開了辯論,開創了美國公開辯論競選的先河。1860年,林肯代表共和党候選人參加總統競選,他的競爭對手還是史蒂芬‧道格拉斯。
道格拉斯租用了一輛豪華的競選列車,列車后載著一尊大炮,每到一站,他便下令鳴炮30響,車上的樂放齊奏,聲勢之大前所未存。面對這种情景,林肯并沒有受到影響,照樣買票乘車,每到一站,就登上朋友們為他準備的耕田用的馬拉車,發表竟選演說。其中,有几句話說得情意真切、真實感人:
“有人寫信問我有多沙財產。我1有個妻子和3個儿子,他們都是無价之寶。此外,還租有1個辦公室,室內有辦公桌子1張,椅子3把,牆角還有1個大書架,架上的書值得每個人一讀。我本人既又瘦,臉蛋很久,不會愛發福,我實在沒有什么可以依靠的,唯一可倣靠的是你們。”
選舉結果出人意料,窮小子林肯戰胜了富可敵國的道格拉斯,當選為美國總統。不過,林肯并沒有直接把解放奴隸作為自己的選舉綱領提出來,只是談到要如何創建一個強大統一的聯邦。馬克斯在談到1860年總統選舉時說道:“如果林肯當時把解放奴隸寫在自己的宣言上,必然一敗涂地。
《解放黑人奴隸宣言》
林肯在就職演說中向南方提出和解,結果元濟于事。1861年4月12日,南部同盟的軍隊仍然炮擊了聯邦軍守衛的薩姆特要塞,2天后,要塞被墳陷。萬般元奈之下,15日,林肯發布了討伐令,內戰爆發。
戰爭初期,南方打得有聲有色,而經濟發達的北方卻沒有還手之力,這是因為南方人習慣于戶外生活和騎射,稍加訓練就可成為善戰的士兵,而且他們在本土作戰,有保衛國家的熱忱。在這種情況下,共和党內部的激進派及社會上的廢奴主義者提出解放奴隸和武裝黑人的主張,林肯也意識到解放奴隸在必行。
1862年9日22日,林肯發表預備性的《解放黑人奴隸宣言》,宣布:徦如南方叛亂者在1863年11月1日以前不放下武器,那麼叛亂諸州的奴隸將從邵一天起獲得自由。
消息很快後到了南方,成千上萬的奴隸開始向北方逃亡。之后,林肯實行了武裝黑人的政策,很多黑人報名參加北方軍防。林肯還頒布了《宅地法》規定:一切忠于聯邦的成年人,只要交付10美元的登記費,就可以在西部領取64.74公頃土地,只要耕种五年,便可以成為這塊土地的所有者。同時,林肯再次調整了軍事領導机构,實行統一指揮,任命有卓越軍事才能的尤利心西斯‧格蘭特為全軍統帥。
1863年,北方在軍事上取得了轉机,7月1日的葛底斯堡大捷使得內戰的主動權轉移到了北方軍隊手中。1865年初,大批奴隸逃亡,种植園經濟臨近瓦解邊緣。4月9日,羅伯特‧李的部阮陷入北方軍隊的重圍中,被迫向格蘭特請降。至此,美國內戰結束,恢复統一。
14. Major Events and Famous People in the History of the United States,編著郝澎,南海出版公司,2007。
The Slavery Controversy
1. The Missouri Compromise
Beginning in colonial times, many Americans had demanded an end to slavery. By the early 19th century, every Northern state had outlawed slavery. But the plantation system had spread throughout the South, and the economy of the Southern States depended more and more on slaves as a source of cheap labor.
The question of whether to outlaw or allow slavery became an important political and social issue in the early 19th century. Of the original 13 states, 7 were free states (where slavery was prohibited) and 6 were slave states (where slavery was allowed). Between 1791 and 1819, 9 new states were admitted to the Union. Of these, 4 were free and 5 slave. This meant that both sides would have an equal number of representatives in the United States Senate.
When the Territory of Missouri, a slaveholding area, applied for admission to the Union in 1818, bitter controversy broke out over whether to admit it as a free or salve state. In either case, the admission of Missouri threatened to destroy the balance between free and slave states. But in 1820, Maine also applied for admission to the Union. Congress worked out the Missouri Compromise. The compromise admitted Maine as a free state and Missouri as a slave state so that there were 12 free and 12 slave states. The balance was thus temporarily maintained. The compromise also banned slavery from Louisiana Purchase north of the southern boundary of Missouri, except in the state of Missouri. The Missouri Compromise satisfied many Americans as an answer to the slavery question. But large numbers of people still called for complete abolition.
In the 1830s and 1840s, the North and South continued to have equal representation in the Senate. Six more states were added to the Union –––– Michigan, Iowa, Wisconsin, Arkansas, Florida, and Texas. The first three were free states, and the other three, slave states. The balance was thus kept at 15 states each.
2. The Compromise of 1850
Soon after the Missouri Compromise was made, however, the United States acquired a vast area in the West as a result of the Mexican War. This created a new problem. Southerners demanded that slavery be permitted in the new territories and states. Northerners wanted the federal government to outlaw slavery in the newly acquired lands.
This issue of slavery came to a head in 1850 when California asked to be admitted as a free state. Bitter quarreling broke out. Henry Clay, a senator from Kentucky, and others suggested a plan known as the Compromise of 1850 to settle the argument. This Compromise was passed as a series of laws that made concessions to both the North and South. As part of the Compromise, California was admitted to the Union as a free state. At the same time, Congress created the territories of New Mexico and Utah, and when these territories became states, the settlers in each territory would decide whether or not to allow slavery. To satisfy the South, the Compromise gave Texas $10 million to give up its claims to eastern New Mexican territory. The Compromise also set up a stricter federal law for the return of runaway slaves. To please the North, the slave trade was abolished i Washington, D.C.
3. The Kansas-Nebraska Act
The Compromise of 1850 eased the relations between North and South only for a while. A new conflict broke out in 1854 when the Congress passed Kansas-Nebraska Act. Senator Stephen Arnold Douglas of Illinois was largely responsible for this act. At the time plans were being made to build a railroad across the continent. The railroad would cross Indian land that lay roughly between Missouri and present-day Idaho. For building the railroad, this land would need to be organized into two new territories. Douglas proposed a bill to organize this land into two territories: Nebraska in the north and Kansas in the south. To gain Southern support, the bill stated that all questions of slavery in the new territories were to be decided by the settlers rather than by Congress. This meant that the Missouri Compromise, which banned slavery from the Louisiana Purchase north of the southern boundary of Missouri, except in the state of Missouri was abolished.
Angered by the Kansas-Nebraska Act, a group of antislavery Americans formed the Republican Party in 1854. Many Democrats and Whigs who opposed slavery left their parties and became Republicans. The new party called for repeal of Kansas-Nebraska Act and the Fugitive Salve Law, and the abolition of slavery in Washington, D.C. Few Southern voters supported the Republicans, because almost all Southerners wanted to expand slavery, not restrict it. Many Northerners supported the party. The new party soon replaced the Whig party and became dominant in the North.
4. Bleeding Kansas
The other result of the Kansas-Nebraska Act was an outbreak of violence in Kansas. Since the questions of slavery were left for the settlers to decide, both Northerners and Southerners rushed into Kansas to make sure that they could control the legislature. Violence soon broke out, and many people were killed.
In 1856, supporters of slavery attacked an antislavery stronghold at Lawrence and burned part of the town. John Brown, a man who hated slavery, led a raid on a town of slavery supporters and killed five men. In 1859, Brown and his followers planned to stir up a slave uprising in the South . They attacked and seized the federal arsenal in Harpers Ferry, Virginia (now West Virginia) John wanted to obtain weapons for the slaves he hoped would join his force. But no uprising took place, and Brown and his men were soon killed capture.Brown was tried fond guilt of treason and hanged. Many Southerners saw the raid as evidence of a Norther plot to end slavery by force.
5. The Dred Scott Decision
In 1857, the Supreme Court of the United States tried to settle the slavery issue with its decision about a slave named Dred.
Dred Scott was the slave from Missouri, a slave state. In 1834, Scott went with his master to live in Illinois, a free state, and later in the Wisconsin Territory, where slavery was forbidden by the Missouri Compromise. In 1838, Scott returned to Missouri with his master. His master died there in 1843, and Scott then sued his master's widow for his freedom, arguing that he had lived for a time in a free state and territory and was no longer a slave. The court denied Scott's claim and declared that no black could be a United States citizen. If further ruled that laws limiting the spread of slavery were unconstitutional. The ruling aroused anger in the North and led the nation a step closer to civil war.
6. The Lincoln- Douglas Debates
The slavery controversy remained the greatest issue i 1858 When Democrat Stephen Arnold Douglas, a U.S. Senator from Illinois ran for reelection to the Senate, his Republican opponent was Abraham Lincoln, a man then almost unknown outside Illinois. Douglas was a popular and skillful American orator. He and Lincoln held a series of public debates on the problem of slavery. These meetings attracted the attention of the entire country. Douglas defended the policy of the Kansas-Nebraska Act. He believed that the people of the territories should decide for themselves whether the wanted slavery. He argued that the people of any territory could keep slavery out of the territory simply by refusing to pass local laws protecting it. Lincoln insisted that there was a fundamental difference between Douglas and himself. Douglas ignored the moral question of slavery, but Lincoln regarded slavery "as a moral, social, and political evil". Douglas won his reelection to the Senate, but some of his speeches in the debates displeased Southern Democrats. When Douglas ran for President in 1860, he lost the support of southern democrats. Lincoln lost the election to the Senate, but he gained a national reputation that won him the Republican nomination for President in 1860
7. The Secession of the South
During the 1850s, the North and South drew further and further apart over the issued of slavery. Early in 1860, many Southern leaders threatened to withdraw their states from the Union if Lincoln should win the election. Lincoln had earned a reputation as an outspoken opponent of slavery, and hi election was unacceptable to the South. Southerners feared the new President would restrict or end slavery. After Lincoln' victory, South Carolina declared on December 20, 1860 that it withdrew from the union. By te time Lincoln became President, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, and Mississippi had left the Union. The six seceded states formed the Confederate States of America in February 1861. They elected Jefferson Davis of Mississippi as president and Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia as vice president. In March, Texas joined the Confederacy. Later n that year when when the Civil War started, Arkansas, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia joined the Confederacy. However, Virginians in the western part of the state remained loyal to the Union and formed the new state of West Virginia in 1863.
Lincoln took office on March 4, 1861. In his inaugural address, the new President warned that he would use the full power of the nation to hold the Union together. To him the states that had left the Unio were still part of the United States, and there was yet hope for reconciliation. But a little morae than a month later, the North and South were at war.
The Civil War and Reconstruction
1. The Attack on Fort Sumter
As the Southern States seceded, they seized most of the federal forts within their boundaries. One federal fort that had not been seized was Fort Sumter, the troops at the fort run short of supplies. Since now the fort became a symbol of an indivisible Union, Lincoln decided to send provisions to the troops there, even though he knew that the South would consider this an act of was. When the supply ships came close to their destination, on April 12, Confederate guns opened fire on the fort and forced it to surrender the next day. The attack on For Sumter marked the start of the Civil War.
10. The Emancipation Proclamation
Lincoln had been waiting for a Northern victory as a good time for freeing slaves. The battle of Antietam served this purpose. On September 22, 1862, Lincoln declared that al slaves in states of the confederacy that were still in rebellion against the Union would be forever free at the beginning of the new year.
The Emancipation Proclamation ws issued on January 1, 1863. Its immediate effect was limited. The Proclamation did not actually free a single slave, because it affected only areas under Confederate control. It did not apply to slaves in border states and in such Southern areas under Union control as Tennessee and parts of Louisiana and Virginia. Bt the Proclamation provided for the use of blacks in the union Army and Navy. As a result, about 200,000 black soldiers and sailors, many of them former slaves, served in the armed forces. They helped the North win the war,. Besides, the proclamation gave the Northern cause a moral force by making the war a fight against slaver. Most British and French citizens opposed slavery, and so they gave their support to the Union. Most importantly, the proclamation was a historic document that led the 13th Amendment to the Constitution, which abolished slavery throughout the nation.
14. Concise Encyclopedia of World History, Lionel Munby, M. A., Theorem Publishing Ltd, 1977
The American Civil War ––– 1861 to 1865
This war was fought between the Northern and Southern states of the U.S.A. Its causes lay in the differences which had developed between the way of life in the North and that in the South. The southerners were farmers who chiefly grew cotton and tobacco. There were few large towns or industries and rich and poor alike lived from the profit to their farms. The large plantation owners used Negro slaves to work on their estate and look after their children. In the North there were many towns where people worked in factories making cloth or iron. Ships crowded at the quaysides of the ports where rich merchants and bankers lived. There were more people in the North and they were generally more prosperous than their fellow-countrymen in the South
By 1850 it was becoming difficult for congress to pass laws which were fair to people in both North and South. Northerners wanted to protect their industries by putting customs duties on foreign goods, but this did not suit the people of the South. The biggest dispute was over slavery. People in the North believed slave-owing was wrong and wished for laws to end it The southerners saw no evil in slavery and felt they would be ruined if they freed their slaves. As western lands were added to the U.S.A., there were bitter quarrels over whether slavery would be allowed there.
In 1860, Abraham Lincoln, son of a farmer, was elected president of the U.S.A. He belonged to the Republican Party which had promised to pass laws to end slavery. Alarmed at this, seven southern states broke away from the U.S.A. in
1861, They chose Jefferson Davis as president, and called themselves the Confederate States of America. They were later joined by four more states. Abraham Lincoln, a wise and patient leader, had not intended to force the southerners to free their slaves. As president he had promised to 'preserve, protect and defend' the Union. He therefore asked all loyal states to help in ending the Confederacy.
War began when southern troops attacked Fort Sumter in Charlestown harbour on 12th April, 1861. Both sides were hopeful of quick victories and a short war but it took four years of bitter and bloodthirsty fighting to settle the struggle. Much of the fighting occurred in the areas surrounding the two capital cities of Washington (North) and Richmond (South), separated by only 160 kilometers. At first the initiative was taken by South who had brilliant generals in Robert E. Lee and 'Stonewall' Jackson. They led the army of northern Virginia in swift rids up the Shenandoah valley, winning victories at Bull Run and Fredericksburg in 1862. Another victory was achieved at Chancellorsville (1863), but General Jackson was wounded and died shortly afterwards. Later in 1863, Lee led yet another advance up the Shenandoah valley and into Pennsylvania. Here he lost the three-day battle of Gettysburg (1st - 3rd July)to a northern army commanded by General Meade. It was a decisive battle, for Lee was never strong enough to advance again.
So far President Lincoln had been ill-served by his generals in the east. Farther west, however, remarkable victories had been won in 1863 at Vicksburg and Chattanooga by General Ulysses S. Grant. He was an energetic and capable commander of the northern armies, which now began to close in on Richmond. Meanwhile General Sherman led a northern army into Georgia and South Carolina, where it destroyed crops, cattle and horses and left behind a devastated land. In 1865 Grant captured Richmond. General Lee, in order to save the South any further suffering, surrendered to Grant at Appomattox on 9th April.
The North had won the war because it had more men and money than the South. It had the factories needed to make guns and ammunition and a railway system capable of moving supplies rapidly. It had a powerful navy able to blockade the southern ports, making it impossible for southern farmers to export their cotton in exchange for much needed weapons. As the war went on the South became inferior to the North in every thing but the courage of its soldiers. A total of 620,000 men lost their lives in the war.
As a result of the war, the eleven Confederate States once again became part of the U.S.A., and so the Union was saved. Laws were passed abolishing slavery and so all Negro slaves were freed. Unfortunately President Lincoln was assassinated five days after te end of the war. Without his tolerance and humanity to restrain them, the northern statesmen would have treated the South as a conquered land. Southerners bitterly resented the new rights given to Negroes, and founded secret societies, such as the Ku Klux Klan, to oppose the policies of the Republicans, who remained powerful until 1885.
15. Atlas Of History's Greatest Heroes & Villains, The 50 most Significant People Explored In Words And Maps, Howard Watson, Park Lane Books, 2013.
However, one issue close to his heart was to drag him back into the world of politics --- slavery. The Missouri Compromise,which had outlawed slavery in the former Louisiana Territory, was repealed in 1854; slavery could now be extended to the new territories of the United States. Lincoln joined the newly formed Republican Party and fought against Senator Stephen Douglas, who had helped to repeal the Compromise in Illinois. 'Honest Abe'. As he had been known early in his career, lost the election but gained a reputation as an orator. He stood against Douglas again in the 1860 presidential election on a ticket to prevent the extension of slavery
Lincoln won the election, but before his inauguration seven pro-slavery states - the Confederacy - proclaimed that they were no longer part of the Union. In his inaugural address in March 1861 he attempted conciliation by saying that he would not legislate against slavery where it was already in existence, but also decreed that no state had the right to secede from the Union. The path to civil war was set. The Confederates demanded that federal troops should leave their garrison at Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina. Lincoln refused the demand , and hostilities soon began.
Lincoln proved to be an excellent wartime leader, directing resources towards the war effort and overseeing the army with aplomb. However, the Confederate forces scored a series of major successes in the early period of the war. Lincoln was bolstered by a major Union riposte at Antietam in September 1862, and issued the 'Emancipation Proclamation', decreeing that all slaves in the ten states that were now part of the Confederate rebellion were free (although this was beyond the bounds of the Constitution that the Union had gone to war to protect). This ment that the war was no longer officially just about the succession from the Union, but about the abolition of slavery. At least 20,000 slaves were freed immediately in Union-held sections of those states, while a further three million awaited the advance of the Union armies.
Gettysburg
The Confederate army was standing firm and its skilful general, Robert E. Lee, was soon mounting an impressive invasion of the North. It was not until the Battle of Gettysburg in 1863 that the Union forces truly gained the upper hand. Lee's army had reached Pennsylvania where it ws met by Major-General John Gordon Meade's Army of the Potomac on 1 July. The Confederates won the skirmishes on day one of the battle, but on day two both armies had fully assembled and the fighting was far more balanced. Meade laid out his army in a defensive formation shaped like a hook, bending away at the top to protect his northern flank, and the line held despite significant losses. On the third day, the Confederates repeatedly attacked the end of the hook formation again at Culp's Hill, but the main action focused on 'Pickett's Charge' - in which Major-General George Pickett, under the command of James Longstreet, led a charge of 12,500 men across open ground towards the Union's II Corps under the command of Winfield S. Hancock. Meade had guessed that this would be Lee's tactic after he had failed seriously to damage the Union's flanks, and his artillery and troops were ready. The Confederates were repulsed with heavy losses, effectively putting an end to Lee's assault on Pennsylvania. Following the victory Lincoln made his famous Gettysburg Address, during which he declared the Union's intention to preserve a 'nation conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.'
16. The American Civil War, A Visual History, Senior Editors Jemima Dunne, Paula Regan, DK, 2015
An Imperfect Union
When the South Carolina state convention voted unanimously on December 20. 1860, to secede from the Union, it was the culmination of a long process by which, in Abraham Lincoln's words, the nation had become a "house divided." Though victory in the Revolutionary War and the ratification of the U.S. Constitution had created a common sense of nationhood, many political differences had never been resolved. In particular, a growing number of Americans disagreed over the place of slavery in the nation's future and the Federal government's role in upholding it.
The period up to 1860 had seen great material changes for the nation and its people. The extent of the national territory multiplied with the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 and victory over Mexico in 1848. While most Americans still farmed or lived in small towns, technological developments and mass immigration were increasing the population and the national wealth. Southern cotton planters and Northern merchants prospered from sales of cotton, from the growth of Northern factories, and from financial institutions that lnked the interests of North and South.
Yet despite these links, by 1860. Tensions ran high between North and South. Most white Americans remained indifferent or hostile to the aspirations of blacks, but many in the North feared that Southern domination of the Federal government could lead to the spread of slavery as deeply threatening and a denial of the nation's historic acceptance of slaves as property.
Since the 1820 Missouri Compromise, a series of political deals had kept disunion at bay but the election in 1860 of a president seen as hostile by many in the South brought matters to a head.
A Question of Union
When slave-owing Missouri petitioned for statehood in 1819, the more populous North dominated the House of Representatives. In the Senate, 11 free states to 11 slave states kept the balance.
The Missouri Compromise
Missouri's petitioned provoked mixed responses. A debate in the Senate about the future of slavery saw the first attempt to block admission of a new slave state. To restore calm, Henry Clay of Kentucky arranged a series of measures known as the Missouri Compromise. In 1820, Missouri entered the Union as a slave state and Maine as a free one. Slavery was barred from the Louisiana Purchase north of Missouri's southern border.
Slavery Divides the Country
In the 30 years prior to the Civil War, churches, political parties, and families split on the nature of the American republic and the status of slavery. Victory over Mexico fixed the national boundaries, but the question of how ne lands would be organized - free or slave - fractured national institutions.
The Fury of Abolition
The great majority of prominent abolitionists were white, many of them pastors who were loath to preach a doctrine of violent insurrection. With their personal experience and hatred of slavery, black abolitionists challenged these white abolitionists who preached pacifism and patience.
Political anti-slavery: Throughout the 1840s and 185s, many Northerners grew increasingly opposed to the spread of slavery. These anti-slavery supporters did not necessarily advocate emancipation. Often hostile to Southern interests, many were simply opposed to the existence of more slave states. Some used anti-slavery as a way of playing the political system, running candidates, and seeking office. Garrison and his followers rejected any political activity as corrupt, while others such as Frederick Douglass were suspicious of the absence of concern for black rights. Events of the 1850s would move radical ideas about slavery into the political mainstream in the North, a gradual shift observed by Southerners with anger and alarm.
Bleeding Kansas
By 1854, land to the west and northwest of Missouri had been settled. This land had to be organized as a U.S. Territory, but would it be slave or free? Pro-slavery forces were determined to spread slavery westward, abolitionists were determined to stop them. Two years later, the result was near civil war in Kansas.
The Kansas - Nebraska Act
In January 1854, in an attempt to defuse the controversy over whether of not slavery should be permitted in the Nebraska Territory, Senator Douglass devised a plan to split the Nebraska Territory into two separate future states: Kansas to the west of Missouri, a slave state; and Nebraska to the west of Iowa and Minnesota, a free state.
If passed, the Kansas - Nebraska Act would repeal the Missouri Compromise of 1820, which had outlawed slavery from all land north of Missouri's southern border. Douglas called for "popular sovereignty," which would make the decision about slavery in each new territory subject to the will of the voters. This would, he hoped, remove the issue from the national stage and make it a local issue.
Abolitionists argued that slavery would have been banned in both states under the terms of the Missouri Compromise. The Democratic Party was split, but Douglas was stubborn, and the act was passed by Congress on May 30, 1854. Far from ending the controversy, the Kansas - Nebraska Act threw Kansas into turmoil, earning it the name Bleeding Kansas.
The Election of 1860
The passions and confl0icts f the preceding decade over states' rights and slavery were embodied in the presidential contest of November 1860. Americans participated in the election campaign with great enthusiasm but little or no sense that the outcome would be disunion and war.
A number of outspoken Southern advocates of secession were opposed not only to any compromise with the North, but also to the Union itself. Known by their opponents as "fire-eaters," they were hostile to the growing power of the North, and any pen discussion of abolition fueled their commitment to an independent South. They included men like Virginian Edmund Ruffin, who had long spoken out in defense of slavery. He actually hoped that the Republicans would win the election, since this would force Southerners to "choose between secession and submission to abolition domination."
The Democrats divided
In late April 1860, the Democrats gathered in Charleston, South Carolina, to nominate their candidate. They could not have chosen to meet in a more polarized city. Street orators called for disunion, while fire-eaters among the Southern delegates openly scorned Senator Stephen A. Douglas and his Northern supporters. At a certain point, the Northern majority reaffirmed its support for popular sovereignty, which allowed the local voters to determine the legality of slavery in the territories. In reaction to this, Southern delegates stormed from the hall.
After 57 failed ballots and a hasty compromise, the convention was rescheduled for June in Baltimore, Maryland, but radical Southerners again disrupted the proceedings and marched out. While the remaining Democrats nominated Stephen A. Douglas, the Democrats of the Deep South and their allies reconvened in Richmond, where they chose Vice President John Breckinridge as their candidate for president.
Lincoln, Bell, and Douglas
In mid-May, the Republicans gathered in Chicago in a newly built convention center --- dubbed the Wigwam --- that could hold 12,000. Promising not to threaten slavery in the South, the Republican candidates repeated their opposition to its spread into the West. They also pledged free homesteads for westward-bound settlers and tariffs to protect Northern industry.
Recognizing the need for a moderate candidate who would be able to carry Pennsylvania and the Midwestern states, Republican delegates selected Abraham Lincoln on the third ballot. Lincoln was not an abolitionist, but he articulated the sentiment of a growing number of Northerners who saw slavery as the gravest threat to the Union and the future greatness of the nation.
Following the division of the Democrats, a new coalition and rival faction came together in Baltimore. The Constitutional Union Party was made up of conservative ex-Whigs and men from the Border States who opposed disunion. By ignoring the issue of slavery they appealed to the Southern residents of Tennessee, Virginia, and Kentucky who threw their support behind them. The party's presidential nominee, John Bell of Tennessee, promised to abide by the Constitution and preserve the Union.
A vicious campaign ensued. In traditional election spirit, public speakers and political newspapers attacked and defamed their opponents using sectional language and personal insults.
Douglas traveled the country warning against disunion, despite facing hostile crowds and accusations of drunkenness. Racial epithets were flung at the Republicans, who were called advocates of African-American equality and mixing of the races. Lincoln's running mate, the swarthy senator from Maine, Hannibal Hamlin, was often described as a mulatto. John Breckinridge faced shouts of "traitor" and "destroyer of the Union," while Bell was characterized as the leader of an elderly and irrelevant faction.
Lincoln elected
Although Lincoln won a majority of the electoral votes with 180, he carried less than 40 percent of the national popular vote and 54 percent of the Northern popular vote. Douglas won only New Jersey and Missouri, while Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia selected John Bell. Breckinridge carried the remaining Southern states, most of which barred Lincoln's name from appearing on the ballot. Lincoln won, but he faced a nation in which one region had given him almost no support. He would be vulnerable in four years and many believed he would be forced to form a cautious, conservative government.
Although the states of Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee rejected the Democratic and Republican candidates, they recognized the risk they faced as states of the Upper South bordering free states. Living along the northern boundary of a slave republic, their slaves would be tempted by the freedom that lay across the border. Also, if it came to war, it was the Upper South that would become the likely battlefield.
In the majority of these slave states, many wealthy slaveholders hoped to preserve the Union. They believe slavery was safer protected by federal law than within an independent slave state bordering free territory. Many of these states had also developed more mixed economies and were less dependent on cotton exports. They had broad connections to their Northern neighbors, but feared they would face hostility from the Deep South.
A chance for compromise?
No candidate captured a majority of the popular vote, and neither Lincoln nor Breckinridge received much more than a bare majority in his region. Lincoln's opponents together outpolled him by nearly a million votes. In the South, Breckinridge lost the popular vote in the slave states to a combined opposition, which received 55 percent of the total Southern vote. The upper South wanted compromise, not conflict.
Abraham Lincoln
In the 1850s, Lincoln abandoned the decaying Whig Party to join the newly formed Republican Party, which opposed the extension of slavery to the West, and in 1858 he ran for the U.S. Senate against the Democrat Stephen A. Douglas. In seven debates with Douglas. In seven debates with Douglas, Lincoln declared slavery immoral, although he denied the right to interfere with it in the South, where it was protected by the Constitution. He believed only that it should not be allowed to expand westward.
Lincoln lost the Senate race, but his debates with Douglas had garnered him a national reputation. At the Republican Convention in Chicago in May 1860, he won the presidential nomination on the third ballot. In the campaign, the Republicans rallied supporters with torchlight parades, barbecues, and picnics. In November, Lincoln carried all the Northern states except New Jersey in the popular vote and was elected president.
The effect of the election was dramatic. Lincoln's rejection of the expansion of slavery was unacceptable to radical Southern politicians, and in December South Carolina seceded from the Union. Lincoln denied the right of secession: to destroy the Union without a just cause was "simply a wicked exercise of physical power." He carefully prepared his inaugural address with the hope of keeping the upper South from joining the secessionists.
Attempt to conciliate
Lincoln's speech, delivered on March 4, 1861, was clear but conciliatory: "In your hands, my dissatisfied fellow country men, and not in mine, is the momentous isse of civil war. The government will not assail you ..... You have no oath registered in Heaven to destroy the government, while I shall have the most solemn one to preserve, protect and defend it."
His word were to no avail. The next day, he read a dispatch from Major Robert Anderson warning a crisis at Fort Sumter in Charleston. The threat of hostilities was escalating and would lead to war just over six weeks later.
Balancing act
From the start of his administration, Lincoln had to balance military and political demands. Abolitionists wanted immediate emancipation, but he knew he had to hold the loyalty of the border states of Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri. Only in the fall of 1862, after victory at Antietam, did he feel ready to shift the purpose of the war from restoring the Union to ending slavery. On January 1, 1863, he issued the Emancipation Proclamation, freeing all slaves in areas that were in rebellion against the United States.
In 1864, Lincoln chose General Ulysses S.Grant as overall army commander. In Grant, Lincoln found a man who would lead the Union to victory, although the horrific casualties from the campaign against the Confederacy's General Robert E. Lee threatened his reelection. General William T. Sherman's capture of Atlanta in September helped save the president, who won the election decisively. Lincoln, however, never lived to see the nation reunited. On Good Friday, April 14, 1865, he was fatally shot at Ford's Theatre in Washington by a Confederate sympathizer.
Secession Triggers War
Despite last-ditch attempts to work ut a political compromise, the first months of 1861 saw a steady disintegration of relations between North and South and between the political leaders of the two sections. By early February, seven states had seceded from the Union and taken steps toward establishing the Confederacy. President Abraham Lincoln continued to maintain that conflict was unnecessary, but the reality was that positions were hardening everyday. Across the South, the seceded states started takin over federal outpost. Not surprisingly,one of these confrontation between Southern forces and troops loyal to the Union erupted in violence --- at Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor, on April 12.
With the nation's small prewar armed forces divided between the two sections, neither at first had the means to fight the other on any significant scale. Both sides began assembling volunteer armies and based their recruitment on calls that emphasized principled outrage over the perceived iniquity of their opponents, a process that could only deepen the divide.
From the start, it was an asymmetrical struggle. In one respect, the South had the advantage. To win, the North needed to defeat its enemies and bring secession to an end; the South needed only to survive. In other respects, the North's superiority was massive --- a much larger population accompanied by an overwhelming advantage in industrial power and financial resources. These strategic realities meant that the was unlikely to be decided quickly, whatever the the results of the early battles. At the start, the South was better served by ts generals than the North, and the Confederacy was made safe for the moment on land. On the Confederacy's coast and its rivers, however, the Union's superior resources promised greater success.
The Union is Dissolved
After the lower South seceded to form the Confederacy, Lincoln acted to preserve the Union, while adhering to the Free-Soil principles of The Republican Party. Union sentiment remained strong in the upper South, including Virginia. Confusion, regret, and conflict divided the U.S. Army's officer corps.
The Call to Arms
As the attack on Fort Sumter unified Northern public opinion, Lincoln issued a call for volunteers. Crucial Upper South states, including Virginia, joined the Confederacy. The Union held west virginia and Maryland; Missouri and Kentucky teetered on the brink.
The South's Challenge
The Confederacy's vast geographic expanse made it difficult for the enemy to occupy and conquer. At the same time, the South's straightforward war goal of independence gave it greater domestic unity than the North, which wrestled internally with question of emancipation's proper place in the war.
Raising Armies
Military enthusiasm gripped both sides and volunteers rushed to join up, all believing their camp would achieve a swift victory. They hoped their moral excellence as citizen soldiers fighting a righteous cause would crush their opponent almost by itself, making training and discipline unnecessary.
The First Battle of Bull Run
Pre-Civil War America had seen little real military action and knew nothing of war beyond fantastic portrayals in books --- the First battle of Bull Run (known as Manassas by the Confederates) of July 21, 1861, represented a grim beginning to the civil war and a portent of things come.
Confederate credibility
The new nation gained instant credibility both at home and abroad. Nevertheless, the inability of the secessionists to force the Union to concede defeat after the first battle, or to mount an effective military pursuit of the broken Union army, foretold the long and grinding nature of the larger conflict.
Both armies needed time to recover, and the Union would redouble its efforts in the wake of its crushing defeat. Meanwhile, the Confederacy would become rather complacent and too easily saw the battle as a vindication of its belief that average while Southerner was more warriorlike than and any money-grubbing Yankee.
Organizing for the Fight
After Bull Run, both the Union and the Confederacy realized that the war would not end in one single climactic battle. McClellan's talents as a trainer helped stamp his personality on the Army of the Potomac.
Missouri and Kentucky
While Missouri remained in the Union, it was beset by the war's worst violence on both sides. The more strategically important state of Kentucky tried to maintain a neutral stance early on, but eventually fell into the Union camp due to Confederate missteps and Lincoln's political dexterity.
Blockading the South
The Union government considered the naval blockade of the Southern coastline to be an important part of the strategy to defeat the Confederacy, and it became increasingly effective over the course of the war. However, while it undoubtedly weakened the South, the blockade could not by itself end the war.
Clash Of Armies
In the early months of 1862, the Confederacy faced imminent defeat. The Union's naval blockade tightened, enabling the North to ship the Arm of the Potomac to the Virginia Peninsula in March. The army's commander, General George B. McClellan, was slow and over-cautious, but his troop strength gave him a numerical advantage to take Richmond. Meanwhile, in the Western Theater, the Union at last found a fighting general in Ulysses S. Grant, whose victories at Fort Donelson and Shiloh laid open the defenses of Tennessee. To the south, New Orleans fell to a naval attack in April; by June most of the Mississippi was in Union hands.
But as spring turned to summer, the Confederacy fought back. A spirited campaign by Jackson in the Shenandoah Valley drew Union forces away from the drive on Richmond. Then Lee took command of the Army of Northern Virginia and seized the initiative. He forced McClellan to retreat in the Seven Days Battles, won a major victory at the Second Battle of Bull Run (Manassas), and invaded Maryland. At the same time, father west, General Braxton Bragg invaded Kentucky. The war hung in the balance. In both Kentucky and Maryland, however, the Confederates failed to get the popular support they expected and had to withdraw, Lee extricating himself from potential disaster n a fight against the odds at Antietam (Sharpsburg). Lincoln felt sufficiently empowered to issue the Emancipation Proclamation, and any prospect of European support for the South faded. The Confederates, however, were still able to defy the Union armies. Another attempted advance on Richmond ended in defeat at Fredericksburg in December. On the Mississippi, Vicksburg held out against the Union. The year ended in carnage at Stones River (Murfreesboro). Tennessee, with heavy losses on both sides producing no clear victor.
The Battle of Hampton Roads
In March , USS Monitor and CSS Virginia fought the world's first battle between steam-power in the Civil War unchanged, but it marked an epoch-making advance in the technology of naval warfare.
The Fall of New Orleans
The Confederates suffered a major setback when New Orleans fell to Union forces in April 1862. It happened after a bold nighttime naval operation in which Union warships commanded by David Farragut forced a passage past the guns of Confederate forts Jackson and St. Philip.
Action on the Mississippi River
The struggle for control of the Mississippi In 1862 brought strange warships into conflict, from cottonclad rams to "Pook Turtles," in battles at Island Number Ten, Plum Point Bend, and Memphis. The campaign was a disaster for the Confederacy, but the union side also fell short of its final objective.
Grant Takes Forts Henry and Donelson
Ulysses S. Grant first came to prominence through the capture of these two Confederate forts on the Cumberland and Tennessee rivers in February 1862. The loss of the forts was a serious setback for the Confederacy, leading directly to the fall of the Tennessee state capital, Nashville, to the Union.
The Battle of Shiloh
The battle fought at Pittsburg Landing on April 6-7. 1862 - and usually named for the nearby Shiloh Church - was by far the most bloody up to that point in the Civil War, leaving some 20,000 men dead or wounded. The Confederacy came close to a major victory, but instead suffered another crushing reverse.
Jackson in the Shenandoah Valley
The Confederate's Shenandoah Valley Campaign was a diversionary operation that kept large bodies of Union troops occupied and unable to support McClellan's attack on Richmond. Taking enormous risks, General Jackson won victories through rapid movement, surprise, and the incompetence of his opponents.
The Peninsula Campaign
In the hands of an aggressive Union commander, a seaborne landing on the Virginia Peninsula might have been a bold and imaginative way to attack the Confederate capital, Richmond. But a hesitant over-cautious execution made General George B. MClellan's Peninsula Campaign slow and unsuccessful.
The Seven Days Battles
Between June 25 and July 1, 1862, Robert E. Lee led the Army of Northern Virginia in a seven-day offensive that drove the Army of the Potomac back from the gates of Richmond. Although costly and clumsily executed, the battles constituted a major strategic victory for the Confederacy.
The Second Battle of Bull Run
The campaigns of summer 1862 had seen the Army of Northern Virginia achieve supremacy over Union forces that seemed incapable of finding commanders to match Lee and Jackson. If a second clash near Manassas Junction brought the Confederates victory, they could threaten Washington again.
Lee Invades Maryland
The Confederate invasion of Maryland in September 1862 was a gamble based on a false estimate that the Union Army was unorganized and vulnerable. Desperate to strike an offensive low against the North, Lee exposed his Army of Northern Virginia to potential disaster.
The Battle of Antietem
September 17, 1862, was the costliest day of fighting in American history. A desperate Confederate defense against repeated assaults by determined Union troops resulted in 22,700 casualties. Despite superiority in numbers, however, Union general George B. McClellan failed to destroy the Rebel army.
Burnside Takes the Offensive
Given command of the Army of the Potomac, Union general Ambrose Burnside launched a swift offensive to seize Richmond that caught the Confederate forces off guard, but the operation ended in Union defeat at Fredericksburg in one of the most one-sided battles of the Civil War.
The Far West
At the time of the Civil War, the U.S.'s western frontier was a wild place of isolated forts, gold prospectors settler wagon trains, and often hostile Native Americans. The Confederates decided to extend the war westward, in the hope of wresting Colorado and California goldfields and silver mines from Union control.
Bragg Invades Kentucky
Throughout the second half of 1862, the Confederates tried to seize the initiative in the Western Theater, mounting a bold invasion of Kentucky. But the Confederate commander, Braxton Bragg, was first driven out of Kentucky and then forced to concede the field at the bloody Battle of Stones River (Murfeesboro).
The Union Tightens Its Grip
The nature of the war changed decisively with President Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation on the first day of 1863. The extent of slavery had been one of the war's principal causes, but from now a Union victory would mean its effective abolition. The mobilization if black troops would also bring an important addition to Union strength. After all the disappointments and command changes of the previous month, 1863 saw the Union begin to deploy its strength with real effectiveness, with Lincoln at last finding the commanders with the administrative competence and ruthless aggressiveness to bring this power to bear.
The Confederacy until now had had most of its successes in the Eastern Theater, but was clearly under pressure elsewhere. The Union blockade was growing ever tighter, and Union forces were advancing steadily up and down the Mississippi. By year's end, after the succession of great and by no means one-sided battles, the Union clearly held the initiative in both of the war's main theaters. The Deep South lay open to attack, and Lee's army in Virginia could only expect to fight yet ore battles against heavy odds.
The nature of the fighting was also increasingly taking on the characteristics that would dominate the wars of the industrialized 20th century --- strategic maneuvers and the movement of supplies of mass armies being made by rail, and the battles of these armies being centered around fighting for entrenchments under ferocious artillery bombardments.
The North still had weaknesses. Social and racial tensions were made plain by the Draft Riots, but the nome front in the South was more vulnerable with galloping inflation and food shortages. Southern prospect for 1864 were turning bleak.
The Emancipation Proclamation
The Emancipation Proclamation of New Year's Day, 1863, transformed the nature of the Civil War and the Union war effort. Until then, for the North, it had been a war to preserve the Union and to restore the rebellious states to their prewar status. Now it had also become a war for freedom.
Lincoln's Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation of September 1862 offered the Confederate states a chance to return to the Union and retain slavery at least for the time being. In spite of this enticement, none of the rebellious states came back into the Federal fold. Throughout the unconquered South, the Preliminary proclamation was ignored as an empty measure that presented no real change in how the war would be fought.
Southerners were well aware that slaves, through their labor on farms and plantations and their work on entrenchments and fortifications, were vital to the Southern cause. In November 1861, the Montgomery Advertiser had asserted that "the institution of slavery in the South alone enables her to place in the field a force much larger in proportion to her white population than the North ........ The institution is a tower of strength to the South."
The need to act
Lincoln knew this as well, and after the Union's military setbacks in the East during the first year of the war, he was anxious to do something that would make significant and visible inroads against the Confederate effort. At this point, Northern public morale was faltering, pressure from the powerful abolitionist bloc in the Republican Party was growing, while across the Atlantic Britain and France were showing disturbing signs of moving toward a quick recognition to Confederate independence. All of these factors, along with Lincoln's own predisposition against slavery, obliged the president to act decisively --- he had, after all, run for the White House in 1860on a platform devoted to restricting the institution's spread into the territories.
Federal generals had already flirted with emancipation in various different locations, which posed a threat to the political effect and long-term moral value of a presidentially issued policy. In August 1861, Union General John C. Fremont tried to emancipate all the slaves in Missouri by a simple military declaration. In May 1862, General David Hunter did the same for the slaves of Florida, Georgia, and South Carolina.
Careful preparation
Lincoln acknowledge the food intentions behind these military efforts at emancipation, but was forced to overrule both generals' edicts. Too few people in the North were ready to consider the freeing of slaves as an additional Federal war aim, and a premature or partial emancipation might force one or more of the border states into seceding. Missouri, especially, was still close to the tipping point. The Supreme Court, headed by pro-slavery Chief Justice Roger Taney, was another potential problem. Taney had the power to declare a rash emancipation proclamation as unconstitutional, thereby creating huge obstacles for the government.
Lincoln had much to consider before acting. His delays and apparent wavering enraged some members of the Republican Party in Congress, who claimed that if the president continued to prevaricate, they themselves would have to take action. They had already passed several Confiscation Acts that allowed Union generals to confiscate and use rebel property, including slaves.
Even as the pressure on him mounted, Lincoln remained determined to wait until the time was right to issue his formal policy. He believed that only he as president, through constitutionally sanctioned war powers, had the ability to enforce emancipation. He later explained, "I felt the measures, otherwise unconstitutional, might become lawful, by becoming indispensable to the preservation of the Constitution, through the preservation of the nation." Carefully timing the release of the Preliminary Proclamation in September allowed Lincoln to prepare the way for the Final Emancipation Proclamation, which formally went into effect on January 1,1863. Technically, the Final Proclamation only freed slaves in the rebellious states, leaving all those in the border states and in Union-held portions of the Confederate state still in bondage. Those deep behind Southern lies would have to await the arrival of Union armies to enforce their liberation. Indeed, in any areas of Texas and southern Georgia, slaves knew nothing about Lincoln's proclamation until well after the war was over.
Anywhere near Union lines, however, and even in locations at a considerable distance from Union forces, rumors quickly spread among slave communities that they were now free. To some degree, slaves had been taking matters into their own hands and slipping off to freedom since the war began, especially in Virginia, Tennessee, and Louisiana, where Union armies had occupied large swaths of former rebel territory. Now, in ones and twos and small groups, slaves left with a conviction, a feeling, or just an idea that the "day of Jubilo" (liberation) had come and that they were truly free to go. Many went straight to the Union armies, where they found work cooking, nursing wounded soldiers, and caring for horses.
Freedom at last
In the free black communities of the North, the response to the emancipation Proclamation was electric. Henry Turner, pastor of an African Methodist Church in Washington, D.C., was present as the Proclamation was printed off in a local newspaper: "Down Pennsylvania [Avenue] I ran as for my life, and when the people saw me coming with the paper in my hand they raised a shouting cheer that was almost deafening." It was from such heartfelt enthusiasm that thousands of black volunteers for the Union army were raised. This Final Emancipation Proclamation included a provision for enlisting former slaves in the army and navy, and thus the seeds for the United States Colored Troops (USCT) were sown. Various states had already begun recruitment of free black citizens into segregated regiments, but now recently liberated slaves could join them as well
In Democratic parts of the North, especially in districts that had voted against Lincoln in 1960, many whites frowned upon the new war measure. Activities increased among Copperheads (Northern Democrats opposed to the war), and newspaper editors blasted the administration for abandoning the preservation of the Union and embracing emancipation instead. One Union regiment drawn from an area like this deserted almost to a man upon hearing the news. But in most sections of the loyal states, public opinion was cautiously optimistic that emancipation might hasten the end of the war.
African-Americans in the War
The plight of African-Americans during the Civil War varied tremendously, depending on where they lived, their socio-economic status, and whether they were enslaved of free. Regardless, the war transformed their lives and set them on the path to equality with whites
Unio policy toward slaves and escaped slaves in the rebellious states wavered between decisive, proactive measures and lethargic inaction or neglect. Overall, the government was slow to implement a coherent policy. The Union army, U.S. Treasury Department, various philanthropic organizations, the president, and Congress all got involved and had different, often competing proposals and procedures on how to deal with the great number of freedmen (free slaves) or soon-to-be freedmen. Power ultimately rested with the military officers in any given area, and as early as the summer of 1861, Union commanders were confronted with large numbers of escaped slaves who had run to safety within their lines.
Horror of the "contraband" camps
These early refugees from slavery became known as "contraband of war." a phrase coined by Brigadier General Benjamin Butler, commander of Fortress Monroe in Virginia. It meant that the slaves did not have to be returned to their owners as fugitives under federal law. However, their fate varied considerably from one theater of war to another.
Many of the former slaves were rounded up and placed in special "contraband camps," where sanitation was poor and medical care even worse. Death rates were as high as 25 percent, and despite the presence of well-meaning missionaries, who provided spiritual and educational guidance, life in the camp was miserable.
In 1861 - 63, the camps followed the advances of the Union armies, and as time wore on, conditions improved slightly as Union officers found employment for large numbers of contrabands. The men worked as dockworkers, pioneers, trench-diggers, teamsters, and personal servants, and some of the women served as cooks and laundresses for the soldiers. In such capacities they performed the same functions as slaves did for the Confederate armies, but at least they earned a "wage," even though this could simply be room, board, and clothing. The families of the employed lived in the local camp or precariously hung around the margins of the Union picket lines.
Wage slavery under Unionists
Marginally more fortunate were former slaves on abandoned plantations that the Unionists confiscated and returned to working order. Early in the war, the Union army overran some of the South's best plantation districts: the sea islands off Charleston, southern Louisiana, and the fertile lands of the Mississippi River Valley. Owners ran to safety behind Confederate lines and simply left their land and slaves to their fate.
Realizing the potential profits to be had, Northern civilian entrepreneurs responded eagerly to the federal government's offers to manage these plantations. In theory, the government would receive the lion's share of the sale of cotton, sugar, or other staple crops, and the former slaves would be paid a fair wage. In reality, plantation managers and local Union army officers conspired to split most of the profits among themselves, and often paid the laborers just enough to keep them working. After "deductions" for food, housing, and clothing, most earned absolutely nothing, and therefore lived an existence akin to slavery. Local military laws that forbade blacks from being unemployed forced many of them back into the cotton or cane fields, or otherwise face imprisonment.
By the last 18 months of the war, under pressure from both Northern abolitionists and missionaries who were outraged at the "wage slavery" that existed in the Union-occupied South, both Congress and the Union army began to change their policies. Land was the key issue behind this new direction.
Through various pieces of legislation, or under the supervision of Yankee generals, almost 20 percent of the former Confederate territory captured by the Union was given to African-Americans. The prominent abolitionist Wendell Phillips wrote, "Let me confiscate the land of the South, and put it into the hands of Negroes and the white men who fought for it, and I have planted a Union sure to grow as an acorn to become an oak." However, the question remained whether the freedmen would be able to hold on to any land they had gained after the war was over.
Black Confederates
The vast majority of blacks under Confederate control were slaves who, either by coercion or suggestion, remained on plantations or farms until liberated by invading Unio forces. It is difficult to determine how many wished to stay with their masters, serving in the army as servants, teamsters, or laborers, or remain at home as fieldworkers and house servants. Few Confederate-enlisted men owned slaves and so never brought them along to war; a sizeable percentage of officers, especially early in the conflict, did bring a slave with them, but this declined significantly as the war dragged on. As an institution, slavery was irrevocably weakened after the Emancipation Proclamation, and by the last year of the war, many slaves --- even those in unconquered areas of the South --- refused to work, or had no incentive to do so, as the majority of white men had left home. White female or black overseers, increasingly common by 1864, could not maintain discipline, and as slavery began to die so, too, did the remaining economic power of the Confederacy.
The Thirteenth Amendment
Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation of 1863 established the abolition of slavery as a Federal war aim, but abolitionists feared that it might be set aside as a temporary measure once the conflict ended. The passing of the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution ensured that slavery was banned in the United States.
President Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation of 1863 left unfinished business. It gave freedom to slaves only in the ten named confederate states that ha failed to rejoin the Union by January 1st , the date on which the proclamation came into force. Some territories were specifically exempted from its provisions, among them the city of New Orleans and the 48 Virginia countries then in the process of forming the state of West Virginia. Other slaveholding border states, where the president still hoped to court moderate opinion in favor of rejoining the Union, were simply not mentioned at all. It was clear, then, that some further measure would be required if slavery was to be banned forever across the United States.
Passing the amendment
Lincoln himself believed that the only suitable vehicle would be a constitutional amendment. Yet there were formidable obstacles in the way of such a move. No new amendment had been passed in 60 years, and successful passage would require the support of two-thirds of the members of both Houses of Congress, and then ratification by three-quarters of the individual states. To make the measure truly binding, Lincoln took this to mean three-quarters of all states, including those in the South that had taken up arms to defend slavery.
The easy part proved to be getting the amendment through the Senate, whose Republican majority ensured its smooth passage on April 8, 1864. The House of Representatives proved more recalcitrant, however, and the measure failed to get the necessary two-thirds majority by 13 votes.
Its fate then became a leading issue in the 1864 presidential election campaign, with the Republicans eagerly adopting the cause as a central plank of their platform. The Democrats denounced the amendment as "unwise, impolitic, cruel, and unworthy of the support of a civilized people." Lincoln's re-election in November 1864 effectively settled the debate between the two parties. But instead of choosing to wait for the sitting of the Republican-dominated 39th Congress on December 6, 1864, to introduce the measure.
Lincoln preferred to solicit the support of dissenting Democrats in the lame duck 38th Congress, wanting to make its passage a bipartisan measure. With some arm-twisting, the necessary backing was obtained; on January 31, 1865, the amendment passed the house with two votes spare.
Unlike the struggle in the House of Representatives, ratification itself proved relatively straightforward. Most Northern states quickly fell into line, and as the Civil War came to an end it was made known to former Confederate states that acceptance was a precondition for full re-admission into the Union. The necessary quorum was achieved on December 6, 1865, and 12 days later Secretary of State William H. Seward proclaimed the amendment adopted. For abolitionists, the passing of the Thirteenth Amendment served as moral justification for the war. The fact that slavery was no longer legal anywhere in U.S. Territory was befitting considering all the deaths and suffering that the nation had endured.
The implications
In practical terms the implementation of the measure still had to play out. Emancipated, or freed, slaves were no longer in legal bondage, but most of them still had to earn a living tilling the lands on which they had formerly worked, and their rights had to be won and protected. Full civil rights for blacks would be a long time coming and the flight would span far into the next century.
The black codes
Southern governments were required b the Federal government to grant rights to former slaves, but they wanted to direct the extent of change. Between 1865 and 1867 both state and local government enacted laws, known as black codes, to keep African-Americans in a subordinate position. The laws, which were not uniform throughout the South, came in many guises.
On the one hand, these statues granted African-Americans the rights to own property, marry, and use the courts, but the majority of the black codes were discriminatory laws that denied rights. For example, there were codes that required blacks to sign yearly labor contracts, restricted freedoms of travel and speech, or outlawed such practices as the purchase of non-agricultural land and the ownership of guns. Heavy penalties were instituted for people deemed "vagrants," including the sale of their labor at public auction to repay fines. Such laws were designed to bind workers to Southern farms.
The flourishing of black codes was a major cause of anger among even moderate Northerners and it contributed to the passage of the Reconstruction Amendments that granted African-Americans citizenship and the right to vote.
16. Political History Of America's Wars, Alan Axelrod, CQ Press, 2007.
Civil War Prelude
At Issue
During the turbulent decade leading up to the Civil War, the Kansas-Nebraska Act introduced "popular sovereignty," making the question of whether a territory would enter the Union as a slave state or a free state a matter for the local population, not the federal government, to decide. Proslavery and anti-slavery settlers in Kansas wanted to ensure, by any means necessary, that the issue would be decided in their favor.
The Conflict
On May 30, 1854, President Franklin Pierce signed into law the Kansas-Nebraska Act, thereby abrogating federal authority over slavery and empowering Kansas and Nebraskans to decide whether they would enter the Union as slave or free states. No one doubted that Nebraska would vote itself free, but Kansas was very much in play. Eastern abolitionists organized the Emigrant Aid Society to finance anti-slavery settlers in Kansas. In response, thousands of proslavery Missourians streamed across the border into Kansas in March 1855 to vote --- illegally --- in favor of a proslavery territorial legislature. Having cast their ballots, they returned home. The number of interlopers overwhelmed that of legitimate Kansas residents and voted in a proslavery territorial legislature. In response, thousands of "Free Soilers" poured into Kansas and set up their own legislature and capital in the town of the proslavery legislature, the Free Soil legislature petitioned Congress for admission to the Union as a free state. Violence soon broke out, beginning with the murder of a prominent abolitionist in November 1855.
The conflict was first called the Wakarusa War because a number of armed clashes occurred along the Wakarusa River near Lawrence from November 26 to December 7, 1855; casualties, however, were light. David R. Atchison, a proslavery senator, resigned his Senate seat to organize and lead an army of proslavery Missourians into Kansas to raid Lawrence on May 2, 1856. These "border ruffians" put a hotel and a few houses to the torch, destroyed an abolitionist printing press, and "arrested" several Free Soil leaders and killed three others. A fanatical abolitionist named John Brown retaliated three days later by leading a saber-wielding band in an attack against five proslavery settlers on the Pottawatomie Creek. The hapless five men were hacked to death and then mutilated, even though none of them and been involved in the Lawrence raid. The "Sack of Lawrence" and the "Pottawatomie Massacre" threw Kansas into years of chaotic guerrilla warfare and anarchic civil insurrection. With the help of federal troops brought in by Kansas governor John Geary in the fall of 1856, the first wave of violence was gradually quelled, but not before some 200 people had been killed.
Although the physical violence abated, an ideological war continued as the Kansas legislature, still dominated by proslavery representatives, set up a constitutional convention over Governor Geary's veto Held in the town of Lecompton in November 1857, it issued the so-called Lecompton Constitution, while the legislature prepared a popular referendum phrased such that either a yes or no vote would result in adoption of the Lecompton document. Not surprisingly, the constitution was adopted on December 21, 1857, and not only legalized slavery, but also made it permanent by forbidding future voters from ever outlawing the institution. Although the Free Soilers had boycotted the referendum, the proslavery faction submitted the constitution to Congress with an application for statehood. President James Buchanan accepted the Lecompton Constitution, but Senator Stephen Douglas of Illinois denounced it as a fraud and led an opposition movement in Congress, and the issue became dead -locked. This led to renewed violence in what the nation now called "Bleeding Kansas," and, once again, federal troops were called in early in 1858. Order was largely restored by 1860, but a low level of violence continued until the outbreak of the Civil War in April 1861. During the Civil War, Kansas was frequently the scene of guerrilla-style combat.
Missouri Compromise (1820)
The Louisiana Purchase of 1803 added a huge territory to the United States, which would eventually have to be divided into states. The admission of each new state to the Union was an assault on the delicate congressional balance between representatives of slave states and free states. In 1818-1819 the petition of the Missouri Territory for admission to statehood as a slave state created a major crisis. At the time , the U.S. Senate consisted of twenty-two senators from northern states and twenty-two from southern states. The addition of a new slaveholding state would suddenly shift the balance. Seeking a means of blunting the impact of Missouri statehood, Representative James Tallmadge of New York introduced an amendment to the Missouri statehood bill that called for a ban on introducing additional slaves into the state, while maintaining slaves in their current status. Slaves subsequently born in the state would be automatically emancipated at age twenty-five. In this way, by attrition, slavery would be eliminated from Missouri. The House passed the Tallmadge amendment, but the Senate rejected it, adjourning without reaching a decision on Missouri statehood. When the Senate reconvened, a long and tortured debate began. Northern senators held that Congress had the right to ban slavery in new states, whereas southerners asserted that the people of the new states had the same right as those of the original thirteen: to determine for themselves whether they would allow slavery. Finally, in March 1820, the Missouri Compromise was cobbled together. Missouri was admitted to the Union as a slave state, but Maine (until then apart of Massachusetts) was admitted as a free state at the same time. This maintained the slave state-free state balance in Congress. As for the future, the Missouri Compromise called for a line to be drawn across the territory of the Louisiana Purchase at latitude 36 degrees, 30 minutes. North of this line, slavery would be permanently banned --- except in the case of Missouri.
Compromise of 1850
Like the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, the U.S. - Mexican War of 1846-1848 created a crisis because new territory was acquired. The war was popular with most Americans, but during its first year, Congress sought a means of hastening its end with a bill to appropriate $2 million to compensate Mexico for what the lawmakers euphemistically termed "territorial adjustments." Pennsylvania representative David Wilmot introduced and amendment to the bill that would have barred the introduction of slavery into any land acquired by the United States as a result of the war. The proposed "Wilmot Proviso" incited South Carolina's John C. Calhoun to counter with four proposed resolutions: first, that all territories, including those acquired as a result of the war, would be regarded as the common and joint property of the states; second, that Congress acted as an agent for the states and could , therefore, make no law discriminating among the states of depriving any state of its rights with regard to any territory; third, that the enactment of any national law regarding slavery violated the Constitution and the doctrine of states' rights; and, fourth, that the people had the right to form their state governments as they wished, provided that the proposed government was republican in principle. Calhoun warned that if these resolutions were not accepted, a civil war would surely result.
The purchase of the Mexican land never came to pass, and the Wilmot Proviso was defeated. For the next three years, however, Congress debated how the fragile Missouri Compromise could be bolstered and perpetuated. A stalemate developed, which Senator Lewis Cass of Michigan sought to break by introducing the doctrine of "popular sovereignty." It abrogated federal authority over slavery by providing for the organization of new territories without mention of slavery one way or the other. Only when the territory applied for admission to statehood would the people of the territory itself vote the proposed state slave or free. As for California, acquired as a result of the U.S.-Mexican War, it would be admitted to the Union directly instead of going through the customary interim territorial status. Southerners objected, arguing that California would vote itself free, as would New Mexico (another territory acquired as a result of the war). To address these objections, Senators Henry Clay of Kentucky and Daniel Webster of Massachusetts proposed a new compromise. California would be admitted as a free state, but the other territories acquired as a result of the Mexican War would be subject to popular sovereignty. This meant greatly modifying the Missouri Compromise and its ban on slavery north of latitude 36 degree, 30 minutes. However, Clay and Webster added a provision ending the slave market in the District of Columbia, which , operating i plain sight of foreign diplomats, was an embarrassment. To sweeten the deal for the South, the Compromise of 1850 package included a strong fugitive slave law, which barred northerners from providing refuge to escaped slaves. The federal government also agree to assume debts Texas (admitted as a slave state in 1845) had incurred before it was annexed to the United States.
Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854)
The Compromise of 1850 substantially diluted the Missouri Compromise. Four ears later, in response to the statehood application of the territories of Kansas and Nebraska, Congress repealed the Missouri Compromise altogether and passed in its stead the Kansas-Nebraska Act. This new law extended the doctrine of popular sovereignty to all new territories and was not restricted to territories acquired as a result of the U.S. - Mexican War. The Missouri Compromise's artificial geographical boundary between slavery and freedom was eliminated. In this way, the federal government sought to remove itself almost entirely form the slavery issue.
Popular sovereignty was sure to result in a free state of Nebraska, but Kansas, to its south, could go either way. The act was an invitation to conflict, and it touched off a bloody civil war within the territory of Kansas as pro- and antislavery factions fought one another for control.
The Abolitionist Movement
The first organized opposition to slavey in America came from the Quakers, who issued a statement against the institution as early as 1724. During the colonial period, slavery was practiced in the North as in the south, but the agricultural economy of the northern colonies was gilt upon small, family-run farms rather than the large plantations found in the South. For this reason, the North had few economic motives for slavery , whereas in the South the institution became an economic imperative. In the North, the absence of the economic incentive was combined with an increasingly widespread moral revulsion to slavery that promoted abolitionism. Rhode Island abolished the institution in 1774, on the eve of the Revolution, and several states outlawed slavery after the war had ended.
The first major abolition group was the American Colonization Society, founded in 1816, which led antislavery protests and mounted a campaign to relocatee freed slaves to Liberia, Africa. Three years after the establishment of the American Colonization Society, Quaker abolitionist Elihu Embree began publishing the first periodical devoted to the abolitionist cause, a weekly newspaper in Jonesborough, Tennessee, and in 1820 he added a monthly journal, the Emancipator. It was not until 1831, however, when William Lloyd Garrison of Massachusetts began publication f the Liberator, his weekly newspaper, that the organized abolition movement became national.
Garrison called for immediate and universal emancipation --- an extreme position at the time --- and he further called for blacks to be accorded the same political and economic rights whites enjoyed. Garrison and the Liberator inspired the four most prominent antislavery interest groups --- the Philadelphia Quakers, New York reformers, New England partisans of Garrison, and freed slaves --- to form the American Anti-Slavery Society in 1833. Garrison led the society, which demanded the immediate emancipation of slaves without compensation to slave owners. Garrison and his followers made and uncompromising moral appeal, and from 1833 until the Civil War, the abolition movement was divided between radical followers of Garrison and those who advocated various more gradual approaches to emancipation.
Responses to Abolitionism
Resistance to abolition was rife in the South, of course, but also in much of the North. Violence was frequent but it was usually directed against free blacks rather than white abolitionists. There was also dissension among abolitionist groups. The American Anti-Slavery Society, which called for immediate emancipation, was opposed by the American Colonization Society, which promoted a back-to-Africa program as the only feasible means of ending slavery.
Such was the opposition they faced that Garrison and his followers decided to take steps to better integrate blacks into white society. Working with black churches, the abolitionists developed programs to educate blacks in order to facilitate their acceptance by whites. Many whites opposed such programs, however, fearing that educated blacks would take white jobs and would even intermarry with whites. The abolitionist task then became a campaign to change the basic attitudes of whites. Some of the nation's leading literary voices participated, among them the poets James Russell Lowell and John Greenleaf Whittier, as did members of another major emerging interest group, the advocates of women's rights. By the 1840s, the causes of women's rights (including suffrage) and abolition were becoming increasingly intertwined. There was also an increasing demand for free black speakers and writers, especially former slaves. The most prominent of this group were Frederick Douglass, a former fugitive slave from Maryland, and Sojourner Truth, a freed slave from New York.
As abolitionism spread throughout the North and became, in many places, increasingly militant --- by actively aiding the escape of slaves by means of the Underground Railroad --- the movement all but disappeared in the South, where social pressure and intimidation as well as formalized legislation operated against it. Most southern legislatures went so far as to outlaw the publication and distribution of ant-slavery literature.
Bleeding Kansas: The Nation Watches
Americans watched the contest between pro- and antislavery forces in Kansas with a mixture of horror and hope. Abolitionist and poet John Greenleaf Whittier celebrated the immigration of northern Free Soilers into the territory in his 1854 poem "The Kansas Immigrants," which described these settlers as latter-day "Pilgrim," crossing the prairie "sea/ To make the West ......../ The homestead of the free!"
Proslavery advocates faced a paradox with regard to slavery in the territories. While they recognized that the institution was not economically feasible in the arid West, where high-production plantations would never be established, they craved the political power the addition of new slave state represented. Accordingly, southern endorsements of the Kansas-Nebraska Act emphasized the constitutional right of slave ownership and (as in the Arkansas Resolutions on the Kansas-Nebraska Act, passed on February 9, 1855) accused abolitionists of making "war with the letter and spirit of the Constitution" by aiming "a traitorous blow ........ At the rights of the South and the perpetuity of the Union."
The leaders of the Lafayette (Missouri) Emigration Society published a typical "Appeal to Southerners to Settle Kansas" in De Bow's Review in May 1856. In the U.S. Senate, Charles Sumner of Massachusetts delivered a long and impassioned speech, "The Crime against Kansas," during May 19-20, 1856, calling the Kansas-Nebraska Act a "swindle" and condemning the illegal influx of proslavery Missourians into the territory for the purpose of electing a proslavery legislature. On May 22, Representative Preston S. Brooks of South Carolina stormed into the Senate chamber and assaulted Sumner, beating him so severely with his cane that the Massachusetts senator did not recover for nearly three years.
The Dred Scott Case and Decision (1857)
While guerrilla warfare raged in Kansas, the Supreme Court handed down its decision on March 6, 1857, in the case of Dred Scott v. Sandford. Dred Scott was a fugitive Missouri slave who had belonged to army surgeon John Emerson of St. Louis. Transferred first to Illinois and then to Wisconsin Territory, Emerson took Scott with him to each of these posts. After Eerson's death in 1846, Scott returned to St. Louis, where he sued Emerson's widow for his freedom, arguing that he was now a citizen of Missouri, having been made free by virtue of his terms of residence in Illinois, where slavery was banned by the Northwest Ordinance, and in Wisconsin Territory, where the provisions of the Missouri Compromise made slavery illegal. After a Missouri state court ruled against Scott, his lawyers appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court. The Court's antislavery northern justices, predictably, sided with Scott, whereas the proslavery Southerners upheld the Missouri court's decision. Chief Justice Roger B. Taney, a native of the slaveholding state of Maryland, had the final word.
Taney held that neither free nor enslaved blacks were citizens of the United States and, therefore, could not sue in federal court. This alone would have settled the case, but Taney intended the case to stand as a landmark slavery ruling. He further stated that the Illinois law banning slavery had no force on Scott once he returned to Missouri, a slave state, and that the law in Wisconsin was likewise without force, because the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional --- a violation of the Fifth Amendment, barring the government from depriving an individual of "life, liberty, or property" without due process of law.
The Dred Scott decision galvanized the abolitionist movement, which asserted that the highest court in the land had been so corrupted by slave interests that it misused the Bill of Rights to deny freedom. More important , the decision made further compromises impossible. By defining slavery as an issue of property, a Fifth Amendment issue, the decision mandated the protection of slavery in all the states, regardless of whether a given state permitted slavery. As abolitionists saw it, if the rights of slaveholders had to be upheld universally as long as slavery existed, then slavery had to be abolished universally.
Creation of the Republican Party
In 1840 the abolitionist movement produced a political party, the Liberty Party, which nominated James G. Birney, a former slaveholder born in Kentucky, as its first candidate for president. Birney ran in 1840 and 1844. The abolitionist movement also spawned the Free Soil Party, which fielded candidates in the elections of 1848. In 1854 the Republican Party absorbed the Free Soil Party and other reform and antislavery parties. It became the abolitionist's party of choice and rapidly developed into a major political force.
John Brown's Raid on Harpers Ferry
The fighting in "Bleeding Kansas" produced a dramatic national figure who embodied the most extreme aspects of radical abolitionism. John Brown had been a drifter, unable to find a meaningful life for himself or his family, until he discovered the cause of abolition in Kansas. After rising to command the territory's so-called Free Soil Militia, in 1857 Brown moved from Kansas to Boston. There, with the support of six prominent abolitionists --- Samuel Gridley Rowe, Thomas Wentworth Higginson, Theodore Paker, Franklin Sanborn, Franklin Sanborn, George L. Stearns, and Gerrit Smith --- he raised the cash to finance a raid he was planning on the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia (present-day West Virginia). His plan was to use the guns and ammunition appropriated from the arsenal to arm the slaves of the South for a massive rebellion.
Brow led sixteen white men and five black men to the federal arsenal and armor at the confluence of the Shenandoah and Potomac rivers during the night of October 16, 1859. He and his band quicly took the armory and Hall's Rifle Works nearby, then hunkered down to defend their prize, holding hostage some sixty residents of Harpers Ferry, including the great-grandnephew of George Washington. Brown dispatched two of his black "soldiers" to alert local slaves in the belief that they would incite thousands to rise up in rebellion.
Nothing of the kind occurred, however, and the citizens of Harpers Ferry surrounded the arsenal, opened fire, and killed two of the abolitionist's sons. Sporadic combat continued throughout the morning and afternoon, when the survivors barricaded themselves and their hostages in a firehouse adjacent to the armory. Lieutenant colonel Robert E. Lee, U.S. Army, and his former West Point student, Lieutenant James Ewell Brown "Jeb" Stuart, arrived, commanding the nearest available troops, a company of marines.
On the morning of the October 18, Lee sent Stuart under a flag of truce to demand Brown's surrender. When Brown refused, Stuart signaled for the assault to begin, and within a matter of three minutes, the battle was over. Brown sustained a saber wounded, and all but four of the raiders in the firehouse were killed. One marine and four citizens of Harpers Ferry, including the town's mayor, also died.
The state of Virginia charged Brown and his surviving followers with treason, conspiracy to foment servile insurrection, and murder. All were found guilty and sentenced to hang. At his sentencing, Brown spoke calmly and eloquently, arguing that he had behaved in harmony with the New Testament injunction to "remember them that are in bonds, as bound with them." He concluded: Now, if it is deemed necessary that I should forfeit my life for the furtherance of the ends of justice, and mingle my blood further with the blood of my children and with the blood of millions in this slave country whose rights are disregarded by wicked, cruel, and unjust enactment --- I submit; so let it be done."
On December 2, 1859, the day of Brown's execution, the nation's most respected philosopher and man of letters, Ralph Waldo Emerson, joined William Lloyd Garrison to memorialize Brown before a mass gathering of abolitionists in Boston. From "Bleeding Kansas" by way of Harpers Ferry, virginia, the abolitionist cause now had a martyr who seemed to many both harbinger of and justification for the coming civil war.
The Civil War (1861-1865)
At Issue
After years of tortuous compromise on the issue of slavery collapsed, the slaveholding Southern states seceded from the United States. United as the "Confederate States of America" they fought for "states' rights," the concept that the sovereignty of the individual states trumps the authority of the federal government (such state sovereignty would allow the perpetuation of slavery in any state that elected to allow the institution). The Northern (nonslaveholding) states fought to preserve the Union and to assert the sovereignty of the federal government over that of the states; additionally, many Northerners were inspired to fight in order to bring about a permanent end to slavery in the United States.
The Conflict
Outbreak
The election of Abraham Lincoln as president in November 1860 provoked seven Southern states --- South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas --- to secede from the Union. About a month after Lincoln's inauguration, at 4:30 on the morning of April 12, 1861, Confederate artillery under Brigadier genera P.G.T. Beauregard (who, like most Southern commanders, had resigned from the U.S. Army to join the Confederate forces) opened fire on Fort Sumter in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina, thereby beginning the Civil War.The fort surrendered on April 13.
Scott's Anaconda
Lieutenant General Winfield Scott, aged hero of the War of 1812 and the U.S. - Mexican War, was the senior commander of the U.S. Army. To gain time to recruit and organize a combat-ready army, he proposed a naval blockade of the Confederacy. He planned to cut off Atlantic and Gulf ports while sending 60,000 troops and a flotilla of gunboats down the Mississippi to capture New Orleans, Louisiana. He believed this would cut off the South economically and divide it geographically, east from west, strangling the Confederacy as an anaconda constrict its prey. The press and the public, on both sides, derided the plan as "Scott's Anaconda." Many saw it as a less-than-honorable approach to a war that should be a forthright duel between North and South. Others saw it as simply ineffective, because the Union navy did not have enough ships to carry out the blockade. In fact, as the Union embarked on a rapid shipbuilding program, the "Anaconda" proved increasingly effective, although not decisive, as the war progressed.
The Border States"
Delaware, Kentucky, Missouri, and Maryland (as well as West Virginia, which would be created in 1863 from three western counties that broke away from Virginia) were slave states, but they remained loyal to the Union and did not secede. Lincoln believed that if the Union should lose these so-called border states, the war itself would be lost. The population of these states was a mix of pro-Union, pro-Confederate, and neutral individuals; some states contributed soldiers to both sides. The most precarious of the border states was Missouri. Its legislature was pro-Union but its governor was a secessionist. Although Missouri ultimately did not secede, it was the site of guerrilla warfare throughout the Civil War.
First Battle of Bull Run
In July 1861 Brigadier General Irvin McDowell, USA, led a force of 37,000 men from Alexandria, Virginia, to attack Confederates under Brigadier General P.G.T. Beauregard just east of Manassas Junction along Bull Run in Virginia. The battle commenced on July 21, at which time the Confederate forces had been reinforced to a strength of approximately 35,000. McDowell enjoyed initial success; however, Brigadier General Thomas J. Jackson, CSA, rallied his Virginia troops, who steadfastly stood their ground, earning him the nickname"Stonewall." The battle ended with a Confederate counterthrust (led by Jackson)that broke the Union lines, ending the panic-stricken bluecoats running back toward Washington.
A New Commander
After Bull Run, President Lincoln relieved McDowell as commander of the Army of the Potomac and replace him with Major General George Brinton McClellan.
McClellan transformed the Army of the Potomac from a demoralized, ill-disciplined bunch into an army. Nevertheless, his troops were defeated at the Battle of Ball's bluff, virginia (October 21, 1861), his first engagement as commander of the force. Aside from this action, McClellan devoted a great deal of time to organizing and training his troops and avoided major engagements.
Opening Battles in the West
In the summer of 1861, Major General John Charles fremont, USA, built a gunboat fleet to operate on the Mississippi, Tennessee, and Cumberland rivers and in August, assigned Brigadier General Ulysses S. Grant to command the highly strategic position of Cairo, Illinois, where the Ohio River joins the Mississippi River. When, in September 1861, Kentucky proclaimed loyalty to the Union, Major General Leonidas Polk, CSA, invaded the state. He occupied Columbus, Kentucky, on the bluffs above the Mississippi. Grant responded by taking Paducah, Kentucky, which gave him control of the mouths of the Tennessee and Cumberland rivers. General Albert Sidney Johnston, CSA, whose line stretched across the length of Tennessee, reinforced Columbus and fortified his positions in northwestern Tennessee on the Cumberland and Tennessee rivers, building Fort Henry on Tennessee and Fort Donelson on the Cumberland.
In November 1861 Major General Henry Wager Halleck, USA, assumed command of Union forces west of the Cumberland, and Brigadier General Don Carlos Buell, USA, assumed command east of the river. Brigadier General George H. Thomas, USA , defeated a Confederate force at Mill Springs, Kentucky, on January 19, 1862, after which Halleck sent Grant to take Fort Henry on the Tennessee. The fort fell on February 6, whereupon Grant marched twelve mile east, attacking Fort Donelson on the Cumberland River in concert with Flag Officer Andrew Foote's U.S. Navy gunboats. That fort surrendered on February 16, 1862, after a three-day battle, breaking Johnston's line and forcing him to evacuate Nashville. The fall of Forts Henry and Donelson marked the first major victory for the Union in the Civil War and boosted Northern morale.
Shiloh
On April 6, 1862, at Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee, Confederate generals Albert Sidney Johnston and P.G.T. Beauregard attacked 42,000 troops under Grant, who was headquartered near a Methodist meeting house called Shiloh Chapel. For the first twelve hours, the Battle of Shiloh was one-sided, as the 40,000 Confederates drove the Union troops nearly into the Tennessee River. Grant's subordinate, Brigadier General William Tecumseh Sherman, rallied his command, averting a riot. An effective Union defense was organized, Johnston suffered a fatal wound, and, after fighting another ten hours on April 7, Beauregard withdrew to Corinth, Mississippi, from where the Confederates had come. What had begun as a Union disaster ended as a hairbreadth Union victory. The cost --- staggering and unprecedented in America warfare --- was almost 24,000 casualties on both sides.
The Peninsula Campaign
The war was going well for the Union in the Western Theater, but in the East, it stalled as George B. McClellan failed to assume the offensive. Exasperated, President Lincoln, on March 11, 1862 restricted him to command of the Army of the Potomac, which Lincoln urged him to lead in an advance on Richmond. Instead, McClellan proposed and executed a roundabout plan whereby he would transport his army in ships to a position southeast of Richmond and Confederate general Joseph E. Johnston's lines. This would outflank the main Confederate force at Fredericksburg by sea and thereby avoid a major battle.
Ninety thousand men of the Army of the Potomac landed near Fortress Monroe, Virginia, on April 4, 1862, and advanced northwest on Yorktown the next day. McClellan did not attack the city directly, but instead laid siege in the mistaken belief that he was outnumbered. McClellan's failure to attack gave Johnston time to construct a stout defense of Richmond. The Union had lost the initiative.
Jackson's Shenandoah Campaign
Confederate strategy at this point in the war was to menace Washington, D.C., which, it was believed, the Union would defend at all costs. Confederate general Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson swept through Virginia's Shenandoah Valley in a move intended to persuade the Northern commanders that an invasion of the capital was imminent and to prompt them to divide the union forces, thereby reducing the number of troops available to advance on Richmond. Indeed, 35,000 men were detached from McClellan's command to reinforce the defenses of Washington.
Despite some defeats and disappointments, Jackson's Shenandoah Valley Campaign was a brilliant success. In battles at Kernstown, McDowell, Front Royal, Winchester, Cross Keys, and Port Republic, Virginia, his 17,000 men forced the diversion of more than 50,000 Union soldiers (including the 35,000 sent to guard Washington.
New Orleans
In mid-April 1862 Flag Officer David Farragut, USN, led a Mississippi River fleet in an assault on New Orleans. By April 24, Farragut had bypassed the city's defensive forts, and Major General Benjamin F. Butler, USA, occupied the surrendered city on May 1. The loss of this major gulf port was a severe blow to the Confederacy.
Fair Oaks and Seven Pines
At the end of May 1862, after minor skirmishing at Yorktown and Williamsburg, Virginia, most of McClelllan's army was north of the Chickahominy River, except for a corps under Major General Erasmus Darwin Keyes. Confederate general Joseph E. Johnston attacked this isolated corps at Fair Oaks and Seven Pines, Virginia, on May 31, resulting in an inconclusive but costly battle. Casualties exceeded 11,000 soldiers of the roughly 80,000 engage on both sides. Most notably, Johnston ws so severely wounded that he had to be replaced by Robert E. Lee (who had served up to this time chiefly as personal military adviser to Confederate president Jefferson Davis). This seemingly chance occurrence would change the course of the war.
Stuart's Ride
On June 12-15, 1862, Brigadier General James Ewell Brown (J.E.B.) Stuart led 1,200 Confederate cavalrymen in a spectacular reconnaissance that completely circled the Union positions in Virginia. "Stuart's Ride" humiliated McClellan, who at last decided to attack Richmond in earnest. He met fierce resistance at Oak Grove, near Mechanicsville, along the Chickahominy River (June 25)
"The Seven Days"
General Robert E. Lee planned to bring most of the Army of Northern Virginia, about 65,000 troops, to the north bank of the Chickahominy at Mechanicsville to overwhelm Union general Fitz-John Porter and his 25,000 Union troops, who were isolated on that side of the river. It was a gamble, because it would leave few troops to defend Richmond, south of the river. Lee's decision began the Battle of Beaver Dam Creek, the second in a series of battles that had started with Oak Grove. These were followed by the battles of Gaines' Mill, Garnett's and Golding's Farm, Savage's Station, White Oak Swamp, Glendale, and Malvern Hill. Collectively, these encounters --- known as the "Seven Days," spanning June 25-July 1, 1862 --- prompted McClellan to retreat east from Richmond to the James River, where he remained until mid-August. Although the Seven Days battles were a costly strategic failure for the Union army, the Northerners did gain a tactical advantage. Richmond had been saved, but whereas McClellan suffered about 16,000 casualties, Lee's smaller force lost 20,000.
Despite the casualties he had inflicted, McClellan was discredited. He remained, for the moment, in command of the Army of the Potomac, although its numbers were gradually reduced to reinforce Major General John Pope's Arm of Virginia, which was operating in Central Virginia.
Cedar Mountain, Catlett's Station, and Second Bull Run
General John Pope's first major battle as commander in chief of the Army of Virginia was at Cedar Mountain, near Culpeper, Virginia, on August 9. Both armies withdrew soon after the Confederate victory --- Stonewall Jackson south of the Rapidan (Aug. 11) and Pope to Culpepper. Lee, displaying a tendency for which he would become famous, acted audaciously and divided his army, putting half his forces under the command of Major General James Longstreet to occupy Pope's front and sending the other half, under Jackson, to make a surprise attack on the rear of Pope's army. While Lee maneuvered, the two sides traded raids. During the last one, forces under Jackson destroyed Pope's supply depot at Manassas Junction, Virginia, and severed rail and telegraph communications with the North.
Pope pursued Jackson, resulting eventually in the Second Battle of Bull Run, beginning on August 28, 1862. On August 30, Longstreet rushed the Union flank along a two-mile front, inflicting another embarrassing Union loss. Commanding 75,696 Union soldiers against the Confederates' 48,527, Pope was forced to retreat. He was soon relieved as commander of the Army of Virginia, and that army was incorporated into the Army of the Potomac, under the command of McClellan.
Antietam
Lee saw Pope's defeat as an opportunity to invade the demoralized North and achieve several goals. Militarily, he hoped to maneuver Union forces into a defensive posture to protect Washington and Baltimore and to locate food for his own army in the Maryland countryside, thereby relieving Virginia farmers beleaguered by combat. Politically, he hoped that Maryland's proslavery population would rally to his side, that the invasion would influence Northern voters in the 1862 congressional elections to elect Democratic candidates who would negotiate a peace recognizing the Confederacy, and that a clear victory on Northern soil would bring diplomatic recognition of the Confederacy by European governments. On September 4, 1862, Lee led his 55,000 - man Army of Northern Virginia into Maryland. In a stroke of luck, one of McClellan's soldiers stumbled upon an apparently forgotten copy of Lee's invasion plan, Special Order 191, in an abandoned Confederate campsite. Even with this information, however, McClellan again grossly overestimated his enemy's number and declined to act decisively. Instead, he took a half-measure by sending elements of his army against the Confederate rearguard posted at three gaps along South Mountain. The indecisive encounter gave Lee ample time to set up a strong defensive line at the western Maryland town of Sharpsburg, behind Antietam Creek. McClellan had sacrificed the element of surprise.
McClellan resolved to attack both of Lee's flanks, then drive through the center with his reserves. A ferocious battle commenced on September 17, lasting from dawn to dusk. Late in the day Union forces nearly flanked Lee in a move that would have blocked his route of retreat to Virginia, but Confederate reinforcements arrived from Harpers Ferry, West Virginia, just in time to save the Southerners. On September 18, both armies occupied the battlefield without fighting, and Lee began to withdraw back to Virginia that evening. Yet McClellan made no effort to attack the Confederates as they retreated across the Potomac River; he allowed the Army of Northern Virginia to survive.
The carnage at Antietam (where a section of the battlefield was dubbed the "Bloody Lane") was stunning. Approximately 23,000 Union and Confederate soldiers were killed or wounded in the bloodiest single day of fighting in American history. Although profoundly disappointed that Lee's army was not destroyed, President Lincoln seized on the successful ejection of Lee's arm from Northern soil as the occasion to publish the Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation on September 22, freeing all slaves held in unoccupied Confederate territory.
Fredericksburg
On November 7, 1862, McClellan was again relieved of command of the Army of the Potomac. His replacement was Maj. Ambrose Burnside. Where McClellan had been reluctant to act, Burnside was eager. On December 13, 1862, he ineptly mounted a massive frontal attack on well-defended Fredericksburg, Virginia, culminating in fourteen suicidal charges against a virtually impregnable Confederate hilltop position. Union forces suffered more than twice the casualties of the Confederates. Lincoln relieved Burnside on January 26, 1863, replacing him with Major General Joseph "Fighting Joe" Hooker.
Chancellorsville
Under Hooker, the Army of the Potomac was reinforced to 130,000 men, more than twice the strength of Lee's Army of Northern Virginia. Hooker planned a three-pronged attack across the Rappahannock above Lee's Chancellorsville, Virginia, entrenchments. It was a sound plan, but Lee guessed Hooker's intentions. Once again daring to divide his army in the face a numerically superior enemy, Lee sent forces under Stonewall Jackson to launch a surprise attack on Hooker's exposed right flank at dawn on May 3, initiating a battle that culminated the next day in Hooker's retreat. Facing a force less than half the strength of his, Hooker suffered 17,000 casualties. Lee also lost heavily, incurring 13,000 casualties, including Jackson, who ws wounded by friendly fire and died of his injuries.
Invasion of the North
For the North, Chancellorsville was a terrible defeat, but for the South it was a Pyrrhic victory. Whereas the North could replace its lost troops, the South lacked the resources to so so --- and no one could take the place of Stonewall Jackson. Lee decided that the Confederacy's only hope was to try another raid into the North to break the will of the Union and force a negotiated peace.
Beginning on June 3, 1863, to compensate for the loss of Jackson, Lee reorganized his army from two into three corps, two of which would be led by generals new to corps-level command. At the head of the movement north was a corps commanded by Lee's senior subordinate, Lieutenant General James Longstreet.
Hooker observed these movements but proposed ignoring them to advance against Richmond, which would be thinly defended. Lincoln rejected the plan as too dangerous and ordered Hooker to assume the defensive and follow Lee. This led to the Battle of Brandy Station on June 9, 1863, which was the largest cavalry engagement ever fought in North America, involving about 20,000 mounted troops fighting for twelve hours. In the end Brandy Station remained in confederate hands, but Hooker now knew that Lee was heading north.
On June 15, elements of the Army of Northern Virginia crossed the Potomac into Maryland, with Jeb Stuart artfully deploying his cavalry in a counter Reconnaissance screen that led to cavalry duels at Aldie, Virginia (June 17), Middleburg, Virginia (June 19), and Upperville, Virginia (June 21). Then, on June 24, Stuart wheeled east, riding around Hooker's rear and flank, disrupting his supply lines, capturing 125 U.S. Army wagons at Rockville, Maryland, and taking a total of 400 prisoners at various locations.
Stuart's so-called Gettysburg Raid --- which took him to skirmishes at Rockville and Westminster, Maryland; Fairfax, Virginia; and Hanover and Carlisle, Pennsylvania --- was spectacular, but the operation took longer than planned and therefore deprived Lee of the reconnaissance he needed to determine the whereabouts of the Union forces. It was not until June 28 that Lee learned --- belatedly, from other scouts --- that the entire Army of the Potomac was concentrated around Frederick, Maryland, and that Hooker had been replaced as commander of the Army of the Potomac by Major General George Gordon Meade. The two armies were about to meet at a place neither of them had planned to use as a battlefield: Gettysburg, Pennsylvania.
Gettysburg
On June 30, a Confederate infantry brigade under Brigadier General Richard S. Ewell stumbled across a Union cavalry brigade under Brigadier General John Buford near Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. Although outnumbered, Buford decided to fight it out in order to hold the high ground he occupied. Thus the Battle of Gettysburg began at 9:00 a.m. on July 1, 1863. By the time Union reinforcements arrived, the Confederates were on the offensive. By midday the situation was thoroughly confused. After much back and forth the Confederates finally drove the Union army back into the streets of Gettysburg, fighting hand-to-hand before the Northerners withdrew southeast of town along the Baltimore Pike. Lacking a definitive command from Lee to exploit what he had gained, Ewell broke off Pursuit. This gave the Union time to establish a new position on high ground: East Cemetery Hill, Cemetery Ridge, and Culp's Hill.
On the morning of July 2, Lee, still without Stuart, was unsure how many Union troops were massing, but he was eager to maintain the offensive. General Longstreet argued that they would be facing most of the Army of the Potomac and advised assuming defensive positions. Longstreet wanted to withdraw southward and attack the enemy from the rear. Lee overruled him, refusing to take what he deemed the demoralizing step of withdrawing after the previous day's victory.
Major General Meade, the Union commander, occupied high ground that gave him clear fields of view and fire. He also had nearly 90,000 men assembled opposing 75,000 Confederates. Meade's Union line resembled a giant fishhook, with the barb just south of Culp's Hill, the hook's curve at Cemetery Hill, the shaft running along Cemetery Ridge, and the tie-end of the shaft at two hills south of town, Little Round Top and Big Round Top. Lee ordered Longstreet to attack the Union left. Ewell was to swing down to smash into the Union's right.
One of Longstreet's subordinates, Major General John Bell Hood, attacked through an area called the Devil's Den and drove Meade's left backward. Realizing that the Confederates would seize undefended high ground on a pair of hills known as the Round Tops and therefore be in a position to flank the Union line, Meade's chier engineer, Brigadier General Gouverneur K. Warren, sent in reinforcements. At the extreme south end of the Union flank was Colonel Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain's Twentieth Maine Regiment, which had lost half its strength in the previous day's fighting. Chamberlain, in desperation, ordered a downhill bayonet charge into a superior Confederate force that saved the Union's flank and, thereby. The battle.
By the morning of July 3, Lee believed he had worn down the enemy sufficiently to attempt a vast infantry charge. Longstreet vehemently opposed the move but nevertheless ordered his commanders to execute it. Remembered as "Pickett's Charge" --- although Pickett commanded just three of the nine brigades involved --- it is perhaps the single most celebrated action of the war. At 1:45p.m., 12,000-15,000 Confederates advanced in close order across a hilly but largely open plain. They walked into a withering fire that decimated their number; nearly sixty percent of those charging became casualties. Only a handful of Confederates managed to penetrate the Union line.
On July 4, the armies held their positions but did not fight. That night, Lee began retreating back to Virginia, his second invasion of the North ending much like the first. As at Antietam, the Union commander again failed to deal the Confederacy a fatal blow. Meade declined to aggressively pursue Lee's army even though the retreating Confederates were pinned against a rain-swollen Potomac River. To Meade, Lincoln wrote, "Your golden opportunity is gone, and I am distressed immeasurably because of it." More than 50,000 men were killed or wounded during the three days battle. Nevertheless, the victory at Gettysburg heartened a war-weary North.
17. The Civil War Day by Day, Philip Katcher, Chartwell Books,INC. 2010.
For years before the outbreak of the American Civil War the populations of the geographic regions of the country had grown ever more different. Indeed , they had started differently. Northern settlers came to create good lives for themselves and a good society for all, often basing this society on religious principles such as those of the Puritans of Massachusetts and the Quakers of Pennsylvania. For the most part, Southern settlers Came to make as much money as quickly and as easily as possible, and leave, unconcerned with anybody but themselves. Northern crops were foodstuffs such as wheat and rye, while Southern crops were tobacco and cotton. And though the latter were easier to grow and mor profitable to sell, they were nonetheless labor-intensive.
The institution of slavery
It is not surprising then, that in the 17th century, when human slavery was introduced throughout what would become the United States, it was in the South that it found the most fertile ground . The system would die by the end of the next century in New England and the mid-Atlantic states as far south as Pennsylvania and New Jersey because it ran against their basic ethical beliefs, as well as the fact that it made less economic sense on the small farms of those ares. In the South, where farmers aspired to own large plantations dedicated to one or two cash crops, slavery was quickly adopted widely. At first laborers were both white and black. Whites however, served for only a set period of years before bein relieved of their duties. Black, though, first introduced as slaves in Virginia in 1619, were quickly seen as heathens little suited for, or capable of , operating as free men. Racial discrimination soon became institutionalized, both in people's minds and in the legal systems of the Southern states. By the mid-1850s, therefore, Southern thinking was totally rigid on the question. Growing pressure by moralists against the use of slavery only further hardened their positions.
At the same time, notions of racial superiority produced a feeling of being a member of an aristocracy, not just an aristocracy over blacks, but over foreigners and anybody who differed from one's own class. This would naturally include the many Germans, Irish, Scandinavians, and others who flocked to Northern cities in the first half of the 19th century.
Southern politicians
In the early years of the republic, Southern politicians dominated the national government. Their states were the most populous, especially Virginia, and economically all the states were similar in that they were agrarian, rather than industrial. By 1820, however, Southern leaders began to lose their power. Northern states grew in terms of population and economic progress much more quickly than Southern ones. At the same time, the nation began to see a growing moral indignation about holding human beings as slaves, a movement that started in Pennsylvania and Massachusetts. This gave Southern leaders cause for concern that they now had to defend a major part of their culture with an ever-decreasing amount of economic and political power. As a result, the notion of "states' rights," something not found in the Constitution, gained credence in the popular Southern mind.
John Brown's raid
Finally, these leaders found themselves under physical attack. The assailant would be John Brown, a radical abolitionist. On October 16, 1859, Brown and 21 followers armed with weapons secretly provided by New England abolitionists leaders attacked the U.S. Arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia. Ten of Brown's men were killed in the subsequent fighting. Brown himself was turned over to Virginia authorities to stand trial for treason against the state. He was hanged on December 2, 1859. Northern officials did not endorse the Brown raid and officially the country returned to the status quo. But in fact, many Northerners saw Brown as a martyr and Southerners began to fear that their rights to hold slaves would be taken from them by force if the opposition in the North grew too strong. Virginians and other Southern states' citizens began to form volunteer militia units in earnest.
By November 1860, spurred on by the increase in tensions after the John Brown raid as well as the presidential election results, there were three volunteer regiments and six more battalions in Virginia alone. This number grew to five regiments and six battalions by the following April. Still there was no war. What finally triggered the conflict was the election of Abraham Lincoln, the second candidate of the Northern-based Republican Party founded in 1854.
The reason most quoted after the way by Southern leaders for trying to break up the republic was to "defend states' right." The actual election of 1860 was not even over when a number of Southern leaders began to call for action if Lincoln were to win. Alabama and Florida said they would leave the Union, while Mississippi and Louisiana called for a Southern convention to plan on a united course of action. Once the results of the election were known, however, South Carolina decided not to wait, but called a state convention for December 17, the day on which they voted the state ut of the Union. From there, there was no going back. South Carolina's secession was soon followed by conventions in Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas, all of which, by large majorities, voted to dissolve their ties with the United States.
The next step was for these like-minded states to band together. They picked the town of Montgomery, Alabama, as the site of their convention, which was opened on February 4, 1861. Once there they voted to form a new nation, the Confederate States of America. They picked for their president a moderate, Jefferson Davis from Mississippi.
Lincoln was not yet president when Davis was sworn in. On March 4, 1861 Abraham Lincoln was sworn in as the 16th president of the United States. Lincoln and his administration were willing to fight a war to prevent the Southern states from seceding, and Fort Sumter would be the place where his resolve would be tested. On March 29, President Lincoln decided to send provisions to Fort Sumter, and he made this decision known to the South Carolina officials on April 6. On April 11, P.G.T. Beauregard, one of Alabama's most senior generals, demanded the fort's surrender. The Union commander refused, and an hour before midnight that evening the Confederates opened fire on Fort Sumter. The fist shots of the American Civil War had been fired.
1820 Washington, D.C., Politics
Disagreements over slavery had existed since before the American Revolution. The Constitution was unclear about permitting slavery in newly created stated. That became a major issue in 1819, when the territory of Missouri applied for statehood.
Congress had to pass a law to grant Missouri statehood. As the legislation was being debated in the House of Representatives in February 1819, Representative James Talmadge of New York proposed an amendment that would eventually free the slaves already in Missouri and prevent any more from being taken there. This move provoked a bitter debate about slavery and whether the government had any right to restrict it. Some Northern congressmen wanted to stop the westward spread of slavery as a first step to abolishing it altogether. For Southerners it was a matter of equal rights --- if Northerners could take their property into the west and settle there, Southerners should be allowed to bring their slave property. The question of Missouri was also important because at the time the number of free states and slave states was equal, and so the Senate ws evenly balanced between free-state and slave-state senators. Any laws passed had to be supported by politicians from both sides. The addition of Missouri on either side would upset the balance.
Although the House of Representatives passed the Missouri bill, Southerners in the Senate blocked it. Congress adjourned with no action having been taken. When Congress met again in December 1819, the debate rage furiously (the Missouri crisis could have led to civil war in 1820). However, Speaker of the House Henry Clay champions a compromise that he hopes will satisfy both Northerners and Southerners. Clay first proposed that a new state, Maine, be carved out of northern Massachusetts. Maine would become a free state, and Missouri would be allowed to enter as a slave state, keeping an even balance of power in the Senate. To avoid any future problems of this kind, Jesse B. Thomas, an Illinois senator, proposes that a line be drawn on the map across the country along the latitude of 36 30' (the latitude of the southern border of Missouri). All states created north of the line will be free, and all states south of the line will be slave. In the future new states will enter the Union in pairs, one free and one slave, just as Missouri and Maine has. Clay used his charm and political ability and succeeds in getting the compromise passed (Missouri was admitted to the Union in March 1821).
The Missouri Compromise originally only applied to the territory bought from France in the 1803 Louisiana Purchase (from the present-day state of Louisiana in a northwesterly direction all the way to Oregon). Texas, California, and the rest of the Southwest still belonged to Spain. Over the following 30 years most Americans came to view the Missouri Compromise as a sacred agreement between the North and South that would prevent a civil war over slavery.
May, 1854 Kansas And Nebraska, Politic
The Kansas-Nebraska Act is passed by Congress by a vote of 115 to 104. The reaction is immediate and fierce. Antislavery Northern congressmen are outraged because the bill potentially opens up Northern territories to slavery. Furthermore, the bill repeals the Missouri Compromise, which for 30 years has preserved the balance of power between the North and South by providing that new states north of the 36 30' line be admitted as free states and states south of the line become slave states. The impact of the act can be clearly seen in the fall congressional elections of 1854: the number of Northern Democrats in the House of Representatives falls from 92 to 23. Opponents of the act elect 150 congressmen.
Last year, Senator Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois introduced a bill in Congress to organize a new territory, Nebraska. Douglas, a rising star in the Democratic Party, hoped that its creation would be the first step toward the construction of a transcontinental railroad that would connect his hometown of Chicago with California. Southern congressmen blocked the bill because they hoped for a southern route for the railroad. Needing Southern support, Douglas revised the bill to create two new territories, Kansas and Nebraska. The bill provided that settlers who moved to the new territories would be allowed to decide for themselves whether Kansas and Nebraska would permit slavery. Douglas called this "popular sovereignty." Many assumed that Nebraska would vote against slavery, while Kansas, which bordered slaveholding Missouri, would permit it.
By 1856 most of the political forces opposed to the act had reorganized themselves into the new Republican Party. The act continued to provide a rallying point for antislavery forces, and thus it led to the triumph of Republican Abraham Lincoln in the presidential elections of 1860, which in turn brought on secession and war. In Kansas itself the act resulted in years of violence, a period known as "Bleeding Kansas," as pro- and antislavery settlers struggled for control. Kansas was finally admitted to the Union as a free state in 1861.
October 16, 1859
Virginia, Land War
John Brown, an abolitionists crusader, leads a raid on the Federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry in Virginia. His aim is to lead a slave uprising that will sweep the South once he is able to provide local slaves with arms. Marines under U.S. Army Colonel Robert E. Lee besiege the fire-engine roundhouse in which Brown and his followers have barricaded themselves. Lee's men storm the building on the 18th and arrest Brown with six followers. Ten of Brown's men are killed in the fighting.
Brown was convicted of murder and hanged on December2,1859. Despite his violent fanaticism, the noble bearing Brown presented at his trial gained him sympathy in the North. To Southerners the elevation of a murderer to the status of a martyr in the North was proof that their fellow-countrymen despised them. Many Believed it was time to go their separate ways.
Key Personality Abraham Lincoln
One of Lincoln's greatest and most important assets was the way he interpreted his power, making extensive use of executive orders. The greatest of these was the Emancipation Proclamation, which came into effect on January 1, 1863. Lincoln accepted that slavery could only be abolished by state-level action or by an amendment to the Constitution --- neither of which were politically possible at that time. When he decided to strike a blow against slavery, he therefore did it by issuing a presidential proclamation. He justified the measure on the grounds of "military necessity," which is why it was limited to states in rebellion rather than applying to the whole country. For this reason the proclamation did not free slaves in Union territory
March 4
Washington, D.C., Politics
Abraham Lincoln is inaugurated as the sixteenth President of the United States. In his address he states: "I have no purpose, directly or indirectly , to interfere with the institution of slavery in the States where it exists.
The First Battle of Bull Run
Only July 18, a Union detachment probed the fords across Bull Run. It was repulsed in a sharp skirmish that lasted all afternoon. On July 21, the main Union force made a flanking movement, crossing Bull Run at Sudley Ford at 09:30 hours. Fighting in the morning centered on Matthew's Hill. The Confederates were pushed back to Henry Hill by late morning. In the afternoon fighting continued on Henry Hill. The Confederates were reinforced, and Jackson attacked. By late afternoon the Union troops were in full retreat.
The Battle of Shiloh
General Johnston's Confederates made a surprise attack early on April 6. They drove back Union troops from Shiloh Church but encountered stiff resistance at the "Hornet's Nest." In the afternoon Johnston was killed, and Beauregard took over. The Confederates pushed the Union troops back to the river by nightfall. During the might Union reinforcements arrived under Buell. On April 7 Buell counter-attacked. The Union troops made steady progress (shown above), and in the afternoon the Confederates withdrew to Corinth.
The Peninsular Campaign
The Union Army of the Potomac led by George B. McClellan landed on the Virginia peninsula at Fort Monroe on March 17. McClellan besieged Yorktown for a month from early April, then took Williamsburg on May 5. The Confederates attacked at Fair Oaks on May 31 and June 1, but the Union army held its ground. After the Seven Days Battles, fought near Richmond between June 25 and July 1. The Union army was forced to retreat to Harrison's Landing on the James River, ending the Union's Peninsular Campaign.
The Shenandoah Valley
Confederate General "Stonewall" Jackson's campaign in the Shenandoah Valley in spring 1862 had the aim of tying up as many Union troops as possible, a strategic diversion to draw strength from McClellan's advance on Richmond (the Peninsular Campaign). The Shenandoah Valley was important to the Confederacy as a source of provisions and as a route for invading the North. It was less important to the Union: the Valley was not a suitable invasion route. Nevertheless, it was important for Washington to deny its use to the enemy. During the campaign Jackson moved up and down the valley at great speed, confusing the Union command as to his strength and whereabouts. His army of 17,000 outmaneuvered three Union forces with a combined strength of 64,000. He won fice battles --- Front Royal, McDowell, First Winchester, Cross Keys, and Port Republic --- between May 8 and June 9, 1862.
The Seven Day's Campaign
The Union Army of the Potomac was only a few miles outside the Confederate capital, Richmond, when confederate General Robert E. Lee seized the initiative and attacked an isolated Union corps north of the Chickahominy River on June 26 at Mechanicsville. In the next few days Lee's Army of Northern Virginia fought McCellan's army at Gianes' Mill, Savage's Station, Frayser's Farm, and Malvern Hill , as well as in nmerous skirmishes. McClellan, his army becoming more and more demoralized, gave up his attempt to besiege Richmond and retreated to Harrison's Landing on the James River. Richmond was safe for the moment, and away from the battlefield reports of Lee's and Jackson's achievements began to sway European opinion behind the Confederacy.
The Battle of Antietam
Union commander McClellan planned to attack both Confederate flanks at once. Union forces launched a dawn attack from the north on the Confederate left flank, and there was fierce fighting in the North, East, and West Woods and around the Dunker Church. The battle shifted south to the center of the Confederate line. At the sunken road (later called Bloody Lane on account of the horrific amount of blood on this road) the Confederates held off repeated Union attacks for nearly four hours. They were forced to retreat at about 13:00 hours. Ordered to attack the Confederate right flank at 08:00 hours, Union commander Burnside finally crossed the creek and started his attack at 15:00 hours, pushing the Confederate back toward Sharpsburg. The arrival of Confederate reinforcements forced the Union troops to retreat and ended the battle in a bloody draw. During the night, both armies consolidated their lines. On the 18th Lee continued to skirmish with McClellan, who did not renew the assault. After dark, though, Lee ordered the battered Army of Northern Virginia to withdraw across the Potomac.
The Battle of Fredericksburg
On December 11 Union forces built six pontoon bridges across the river under continuous fire from the last Confederates in Fredericksburg. Union forces occupied and looted the city on the 12th . On December 13, in the Union assault on Prospect Hill, only two small divisions attacked de to mismanagement. One division, commanded by Major General George G. Meade, was in the van; Major General John Gibbon's division was in support. Meade's troops actually broke through an unguarded gap in the confederate lines but Jackson's men expelled the unsupported Federals. The Confederate pushed the Union troops back to the river. At 12:00 hours the Union assault on the Confederate forces entrenched on Marye's Heights began. Wave after wave of Federal attackers were mown down by Confederate troops firing from a strong position in a sunken road protected by a stone wall. Indeed, no fewer than 14 successive Federal brigades charged the Confederate position. They continued until dark with no effect. Burnside retreated across the river on December 15.
1863
This year was the turning point in the Civil War. On the battlefield the South was defeated at the Battle of Gettysburg, thus bringing to an end the Confederacy's ability to mount strategic offensives. More importantly, perhaps, Lincoln Emancipation Proclamation turned the was into a moral crusade to abolish slavery. This made European military or diplomatic support for the South impossible.
January 1
The Union, Economy
The Homestead Act comes into effect today. The first Federal law to encourage enterprise, it grants a farmer 160 acres of federal land in the West after he or she has lived on the land for five years and made improvements to it. A total of 80 million acres will be allocated in this way, ad the Homestead Act will give a major push to western migration.
The Union, Civil Rights
President Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation comes into effect today, thus ensuring that the Civil War becomes a war of black liberation in addition to a struggle to save the Union.
Lincoln has repeatedly asserted that his responsibility as president is to suppress the South's rebellion, not to free its slaves. However, the issue of slavery lies at the heart of the conflict and has to be addressed sooner or later. Lincoln Judges that there is enough public support for emancipation to Incorporate it into national policy.
The timing is right for such action for several reasons. The Civil War has reached a military stalemate, and morale is low in the North. The military successes of the Confederacy have depended to a significant degree on slaves, who provide the labor that supplies the Southern armies, freeing up white men to serve in the ranks. The Union desperately needs men to fill depleted regiments. There is also the fear that Britain might recognize the confederate government.
Lincoln did not want to make the proclamation while the North was in a weak position militarily. The Union's tactical victory at the Battle of Antietam provided the breakthrough he needed. Five days latter, on September 22, 1862, he issued his preliminary Emancipation Proclamation. In it he gave the rebellious states an ultimatum. If they did not stop fighting and reaffirm their allegiance to the United States by the end of the year, their slaves would be declared free. When Lincoln's deadline came and went and not a single Confederate state had surrendered, emancipation of the South's slaves became a major war aim.
Confederate President Jefferson Davis states the proclamation is an "effort to excite servile war within the Confederacy." He blasts it as "the most execrable measure recorded in the history of guilty man," one that will lead to insurrection by the slaves and to their ultimate"extermination." Davis declares that "all negro slaves captured in arms" and their white officers will be tried under Confederate laws.
Across the Mason-Dixon line, however, abolitionists, African Americans, and others welcome the proclamation. Leading abolitionist Frederick Douglass congratulates Lincoln on "this amazing approximation toward the sacred truth of human liberty." "We are all liberated ......... By the Emancipation Proclamation," Douglass says. "The white man is liberated, the black man is liberated, the brave men now fighting ......... Against rebels and traitors are now liberated."
Many, however, are disappointed that Lincoln bases his proclamation on military necessity, rather than a commitment to racial equality. They point out that the proclamation is very limited, freeing slaves only in areas still under Confederate control --- not in the loyal border states or in Union-controlled parts of the Confederacy.
The final Emancipation Proclamation decrees that freed slaves" will be received into the armed service of the United States to garrison forts, positions, stations, and other places, and to man vessels of all sorts." This signals a major change in policy, because since 1861 the Union army has turned away free black volunteers.
By 1865 the army had raised 180,000 black soldiers. The Emancipation Proclamation thus began the process of freeing and arming the South's slaves. It did not end slavery --- that was not achieved until the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution in December 1865 --- but it gave the Union cause a moral force and strengthened the Union both militarily and politically. It also ended the chance of foreign intervention --- no European country was prepared to oppose a crusade against slavery.
The Battle of Gettysburg
On July 1 the Confederates advanced from the north but were stopped as both sides sent troops forward quickly. The Confederates sent the divisions of Major General Henry Heth and Major General William Pender of Hill's Corps to take Gettysburg, which was occupied by Brigadier General John Buford's division of Federal cavalry, and Union forces fell back to the high ground to the south of the town. On July 2 , to the north, elements of a division of the Confederate III Corps advanced to the slopes of Cemetery Ridge before they too were forced to retire. The Union line held. In the late afternoon Confederates made piecemeal attacks on Cemetery Hill and Culp's Hill but made no headway. Union forces were pushed back as fierce fighting took place around the Devil's Den and Peach Orchard. The Confederates advanced to the base of Little Round Top, but Federal reinforcements, including elements of VI Corps, halted their attack. On July 3, 15,000 Confederates made a doomed frontal assault against the Union center, later known as Pickett's Charge. The failure of this attack marked the effective end of the battle.
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